Antique Rome’s Early Stage
Cenate Definition
- Cenate - Cenate in the floow context: archaic, legendary, semi-mythical council (proto-Senate).
- Senate - Senate in the follow context: later institutionalized body, attested historically.
Romulus, and the Rome
Nevertheless such a person, mentioned in some sources as Romulus encountered as legendary, the legends still have a place in our life...“Romulus and Remus, sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars, were exposed by the river Tiber, rescued by a she-wolf, and raised by a shepherd. When grown, they returned and decided to found a city. Romulus, after a dispute with Remus over the site and the auguries, killed his brother and named the city after himself, Rome.”
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita, Book I, Chapter 6 (c. 27–9 BCE)
“Romulus and Remus, children of Rhea Silvia, were left exposed by the Tiber, suckled by a she-wolf, and reared by Faustulus the shepherd. In adulthood, they decided to establish a city. Romulus, having chosen the Palatine Hill, slew Remus after he leapt over the walls, and became sole ruler, giving the city the name Rome.”
Dionysius of Halicarnassus – Roman Antiquities, Book I, 7–8 (c. 30–7 BCE)
“Romulus and Remus, sons of Mars, were left to die by the river, saved by a she-wolf, then fostered by Faustulus. When they grew, they resolved to found a city. Disputes arose over the hill to settle; Remus mocked Romulus’ walls and was slain. Romulus then became the first king of Rome.”
Plutarch – Life of Romulus, Chapter 2–3 (46–120 CE)
The sources we are encounting to untrusted, by one simple reason, all of them are written significantly later of the events, described there. And even if we step aside from the stylistics approach fashioned to that times, a city foundation timesame as a circimstances, described above, may be accepted with only exceptions, if such testimonies correlate with archaeologic data, and lucky smiling us, - they are!. When we scraped off the opulence and decorations of the texts, we obtain data that can be subjected to analysis and comparison of facts.
So, let's collect facts about the Rome city foundation
- Rome: foundation — facts, antique quotations, and archaeology
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Traditional foundation date: 753 BCE
- Antique testimony (fact as they recorded it):
- Archaeology:
Livy gives the traditional foundation narrative and uses the conventional founding chronology (the Roman calendar tradition places Romulus’ foundation in 753 BCE).
The whole duration of the regal government from the foundation of the City…
(Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, Book I)
Material evidence shows urbanizing activity on the Palatine and Forum area in the 8th century BCE, consistent with a proto-urban foundation in the mid-1st millennium BCE. Pottery, hut remains and ritual deposits date to the 9th–8th centuries BCE, supporting an emergence of a nucleated settlement around that time (archaeological syntheses and Palatine excavations).
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Location: Palatine Hill (and adjacent lowlands (Forum)) as the nucleus
- Antique testimony:
- Archaeology:
Roman tradition attributes the founding core to the Palatine. (See Romulus foundation episodes in Livy and Dionysius.)
Excavations on the Palatine reveal Iron Age huts, postholes and an early wall line (sometimes called a Palatine enclosure (“murus Romuli”) by some scholars) dated to the 8th century BCE. Early funerary sealed in the future Forum valley stop in the late 9th century BCE and the area converts to public (or ritual) use in the 8th century BCE. These data place initial settlement and ritual (urbanic) activity on the Palatine and adjacent valleys in the 8th century.
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The “twins” (as also ”she-wolf”) foundation legend (Romulus & Remus)
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Antique quotations: (classic legendary formulation)
- Livy: summary of the twin-founder legend (Romulus & Remus exposed, suckled, and the fraternal conflict ending with Remus’ death)
- Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch retell the same key motifs (Rhea Silvia, Mars, she-wolf, Faustulus the shepherd, dispute over the walls)
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Antique quotations: (classic legendary formulation)
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Early fortification | Palatine wall (sometimes linked to “Romulus”)
- Antique testimony:
- Archaeology:
- Ancient authors describe Romulus establishing the city’s initial boundary and walls. (Livy, Dionysius).
“Romulus marked out the boundaries of the city, and having built the walls, he fortified the Palatine Hill, placing watch posts along the perimeter, and organized the people for its defense.”
Livy — Ab Urbe Condita, Book I, Chapters 4–6 (c. 27–9 BCE)
“Romulus, after founding the city, surrounded it with walls, and assigned citizens to the defense of each part, setting watch posts and fortifying the approaches to the Palatine. In this manner, the city was rendered safe and the citizens were disciplined in war and peace alike.”
Dionysius of Halicarnassus — Roman Antiquities, Book I, Sections 10–14 (c. 30–7 BCE)
“Thus Romulus, by enclosing the city with a wall and assigning each man his proper place in the defense, laid the foundations of Rome and of the Senate.“
Livy, Book I, ch. 6
“He built ramparts around the chosen site, fixed the boundaries, and assigned plots to each settler so that both defense and habitations were arranged systematically.”
Dionysius, I.11–12
- Excavations have identified traces interpreted as an early enclosure or defensive walls on the Palatine that dates to the 8th century BCE. Andrea Carandini’s work argues for a ceremonial boundary-ploughing and an early palatine enclosure — he dates a substantial construction phase to the mid-8th century BCE. Other scholars accept an 8th–7th c. enclosure but debate interpretation (fortification vs. ritual boundary).
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Early domestic architecture: huts (Casa Romuli)
- Antique testimony:
- Archaeology:
- Romans preserved the idea of Romulus’ simple hut (Casa Romuli) on the Palatine and later kept a symbolic hut maintained by pontiffs.
“The site of Romulus’ hut was preserved, and its simplicity marked by tradition; later, the pontiffs kept it as a sacred place, a reminder of the city’s humble beginnings.”
“This hut, which Romulus built with his own hands on the Palatine, was retained by the Romans even after the erection of larger houses and public buildings, serving as a symbol of the city’s origin.”
Livy — Ab Urbe Condita, Book I, Chapter 6 (c. 27–9 BCE)
“Romulus’ house on the Palatine was small and simple, made of unbaked bricks and thatch. In later times, the Romans preserved it carefully and the pontiffs maintained it, keeping alive the memory of the city’s founder.”
Dionysius of Halicarnassus — Roman Antiquities, Book I, Section 14 (c. 30–7 BCE)
“Romulus built a hut of humble materials on the Palatine Hill, and even after the city expanded, the hut was preserved as a sacred relic. It was tended by the priests, who showed it to those who wished to see the founder’s dwelling.”
Plutarch — Life of Romulus, Chapter 9 (46–120 CE)
- Iron Age hut-remains (postholes, hut-plans, hearths) have been found on the Palatine and in Latial culture contexts. These match the general form of early Italic huts depicted in funerary urns (single-room, thatch/wattle). Archaeologists stress we cannot link a specific hut to a named individual, but the material culture matches the traditional image of early dwellings. -
Early ritual sites in the Forum, or Comitium... (Vulcanal, Lapis Niger, Regia)
- Antique testimony:
- Archaeology:
- Romans attributed ancient sanctuaries (Vulcanal, Comitium, Regia) to the city’s earliest kings — e.g., Romans said Romulus or early kings established cult places in the Forum area.
Key Facts from Quotations Sanctuary Function Attribution Source Vulcanal Altar/shrine to Vulcan; site for public sacrifices Romulus Livy I.6; Dionysius I.12; Plutarch ch. 9 Comitium Assembly place for citizens; deliberation & elections Romulus / early kings Livy I.7; Dionysius I.13; Plutarch ch. 9 Regia King’s house; office of Pontifex Maximus; religious administration Romulus / Numa Livy I.7; Dionysius I.14; Plutarch ch. 9 “Romulus, having fixed the city’s boundaries, set apart a sacred spot on the slope of the Capitoline, the Vulcanal, for the worship of Vulcan, and decreed that the assembly should meet there in times of emergency.”
“The Comitium, a gathering place for the people, was established near the Forum, so that the citizens could assemble for elections and deliberations, and to witness the performance of sacred rites.”
“Romulus or Numa assigned a house for the pontifex maximus, called the Regia, from which the religious administration of the city was conducted.”
Livy — Ab Urbe Condita, Book I, Chapters 6–7 (c. 27–9 BCE)
“Romulus consecrated a shrine to Vulcan on the open slope of the hill, calling it the Vulcanal, and decreed that public sacrifices be made there in times of war or pestilence.”
“Near the Forum, a space was set aside for the assembly of citizens, the Comitium, where the elders met and legal and religious matters were handled.”
“The Regia, a house of the king, became the office of the pontifex maximus. Here the laws of sacrifice and sacred rites were kept, and the early kings conducted the religious affairs of the city.”
Dionysius of Halicarnassus — Roman Antiquities, Book I, Sections 12–14 (c. 30–7 BCE)
“Romulus set apart the Vulcanal, a holy spot for the worship of Vulcan; he also founded the Comitium, where the people could assemble, and the Regia, where priests performed sacred rites and maintained the memory of the city’s religious duties.”
Plutarch — Life of Romulus, Chapter 9 (46–120 CE)
- Excavations in the Roman Forum reveal ritual deposits, an archaic sacred area (Vulcanal) and the Lapis Niger (a black stone shrine) with one of the earliest Old Latin inscriptions dated c. 570–550 BCE.
- The Forum was an Iron-Age cemetery before becoming a public-ritual center in the 8th century BCE, consistent with literary memory of ancient cult-places
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Political institution: the Senate (Romulus credited by tradition)
- Antique testimony:
- Archaeology:
“Romulus… formed the Senate of one hundred men, who were called patres, from whom the patrician order derives its name.”
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, Book I
- No inscriptional “smoking gun” names Romulus, but archaeology shows early nucleated settlement and social stratification in the 8th–7th centuries.
- The material record (larger houses, special deposits, elite graves near the Palatine/Forum) supports the existence of an emergent elite that could have formed a council of elders — consistent with the Senate’s early historic role (textual) though the institutional details are literary reconstructions.
- Law of the Twelve Tables is the earliest written legislation of Roman law, dated to 451–450 BCE, providing a fundamental legal text for early Rome, and may be encountered in sources we may link to already established traditions in Ancient Rome, which leads us to the reasonable suggestion that the Cenate, as a social phenomenon, was founded long before the mentioned testimony.
ancient literary witnesses (Livy, Dionysius, Plutarch, Ovid, etc.) wrote centuries after the events; archaeology gives direct physical dates. Below, I will provide few cites of ancient texts (with translation locations) and modern archaeological summaries (excavation reports alongside each fact).
What the Romans thought about the Greeks and the Greek ‘East’ is complicated. They had a great deal of respect for some ancient cultures, especially (but not limited to) Greece. They also based almost all of their literature on Greek models, and some elite Romans became enthusiastic followers of Greek philosophy.
UnRoman Romans, Author: Siobhán McElduff
Unfortunately, we have no broad, long list of contact testimonies in archaeology related to the early Roman period. The undisputable influence of Ancient Greece on Roman political structure, design, and culture can only be derived from a few existing records, mostly dated to the Roman Republican period.
Cicero shared with us his stands of view on how Greece impacts Roman tradition...
- On Romans borrowing from Greeks
Latin:
“Omnes artes quae ad humanitatem pertinent habent quoddam commune vinculum et quasi cognatione quadam inter se continentur.”
English:
All disciplines connected with the humanities are bound together by a common link, as though by a natural kinship.
Tusculan Disputations, II.5
Cicero openly says Rome’s culture is built on Greek foundations.
- On philosophy coming from Greece
Latin:
“Philosophia inventrix legum, dux virtutis, expultrix vitiorum; sed omnium inventrix Graecia.”
English:
“Philosophy is the discoverer of laws, the guide of virtue, the banisher of vice; and yet the inventor of all this was Greece.”
De Finibus, III.3
He admits philosophy—the core of Roman intellectual life—was born in Greece.
- On Greek culture enriching Rome
Latin:
“Non enim parva res neque tenuis, sed magna et ampla quaedam res et ad bene beateque vivendum aptissima a Graecis ad nos deducta est.”
English:
“For it is no small or trivial matter, but a great and noble pursuit, most suited to a good and happy life, that has been brought to us from the Greeks.”
De Oratore, I.14
Rhetoric and philosophy, he says, came from Greece and are vital for Rome.
- On distrust of Greeks as witnesses
Latin:
“Testes Graecos—quamquam etiam sine hoc genere testium satis firmam causam habet Flaccus—sed tamen quid est quod hoc loco dici possit? Levitas Graecorum, fallacitas, mendacium.”
English:
“Greek witnesses—although even without this kind of witness Flaccus’ case is strong enough—yet what can be said here? The fickleness of the Greeks, their deceit, their mendacity.”
Pro Flacco, 28.67
While admiring Greek culture, Cicero also mocks Greeks in legal contexts as untrustworthy.
Even if we take into account broadly used disclaimers from classical logic tutorials, which point us to the common error as: 'appeal to authority fallacy (or argumentum ad verecundiam)', It is impossible to disregard Cicero’s reflections, based on the lack of ancient excavation archaeological evidence and artefacts.
But the claim should be aligned with some considerations:
Cicero wrote centuries after early Rome’s founding, so his perspective is not firsthand.
He had his own biases—political, rhetorical, and cultural—which can affect reliability.
In our own defence of the declaration that the historical period we are reviewing has a lack of archaeological artefacts, we should put on the table a leaf with notation that the claim is the unauthoritative stance of our authorship...
Brief Overview of Early Rome Political Structure, Social Architecture
Romulus period:
- Population of Rome (c. 753–716 BCE)"
- Composition of social stratification:
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Main Political Characteristics
- Founding ruler and first king:
- Monarchical system:
- Centralization of power:
- Romulus is both the legendary founder of Rome and its first sovereign authority.
- Rome was a monarchy, with Romulus holding full executive, military, and religious authority (early imperium).
- Decisions rested entirely on the king; there were no formal democratic mechanisms at this stage.
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Institutions of the Time
- Senate:
- Popular Assembly (Curiate Assembly / Comitia Curiata):
- Military Organization:
- Composed of 100–300 elders (patres), mostly heads of leading families (gentes).
- Role: advisory body to the king, helped organize military campaigns and manage early civic affairs.
- Not yet legislative; could not override the king.
- Organized by 30 curiae, representing family-based clans.
- Role: ratified certain decrees, primarily to formally endorse king’s decisions, grant imperium, and witness adoptions/marriages.
- Early form of civic participation, but not a democracy.
- Rome’s army initially consisted of all male citizens organized by clan, led directly by the king.
- Military service was both civic duty and a basis of social hierarchy.
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Polis Management
- Urban foundation and defense:
- Division of population:
- Conflict resolution:
- Romulus established the city on Palatine Hill, organized fortifications, and defined city boundaries.
- Patricians (leading families): held political power, formed the Senate, and controlled religious rites.
- Plebeians (commoners): initially mostly non-landholding residents; had limited political rights, subject to the king’s decisions.
handled by the king; informal councils and elders advised but did not constrain authority.
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Rights and Role of Romulus
- King’s imperium: Romulus had absolute power over law, military command, and religious rites.
- Legislative role: he issued decrees (leges regiae), later codified by successors.
- Judicial role: supreme judge for civil disputes and criminal matters.
- Military commander: led Rome in wars and raids; decisions on life, death, and land allocation rested with him.
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Main Goods Produced
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Local Production
- Agriculture (primary economy):
- Livestock:
- Crafts:
- Trade-Oriented Goods
- Grains: wheat, barley
- Legumes: lentils, beans
- Olives and grapes (limited, early viticulture and olive oil)
- Vegetables, fruit, herbs
- cattle
- sheep
- goats
- pigs
- basic pottery
- woven textiles
- simple tools
- Surplus grains (small-scale)
- Livestock or cured meat
- Pottery and simple crafts (locally produced)
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Exports
- Likely exported to nearby settlements in Latium and Etruria
- Nature of export:
- Neighboring Latin towns (Alba Longa, Tibur, Praeneste)
- Early Etruscan cities (Veii, Tarquinii)
- mostly barter or gift-exchange; formal market-based export was limited.
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Raw materials and specialized goods not locally produced:
By the 8th century BCE, Greek city-states were founding colonies in southern Italy and Sicily (Magna Graecia), e.g., Cumae, Naples (Neapolis), Tarentum.
- Metal: iron, bronze (from Etruria or Greek colonies)
- Luxury items: Greek pottery, ornaments, and wine
- Timber and other construction materials (for fortifications)
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Local Production
-
Taxation System
- Informal and rudimentary:
- Rome did not yet have a formalized taxation system like later Republic or Empire.
- King could demand tribute, labor, or military service from dependent communities or conquered peoples.
- Land was mostly under king’s control or patrician families; redistribution was under royal authority.
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Finaces
- Currency
- Means of Value
- Tribute and Obligations
- No coined money existed in Rome yet.
- Economy was largely subsistence-based, relying on barter and reciprocal exchange.
- Goods and services were exchanged directly: grain, livestock, pottery, tools, and labor.
- Wealth and status were measured in:
- Land ownership (patricians controlling fertile plots)
- Livestock (cattle, sheep, goats)
- War spoils (from raids or conflicts)
- Early Roman society relied on prestige and reciprocal obligations rather than cash.
- The king could demand tribute, military service, or labor from the population or subordinate communities.
- These “payments” were in-kind, not in coins: grain, livestock, or other goods.
- Patricians might redistribute resources to clients, forming the client-patron system, which functioned partly like an early economic network.
Population estimates are very approximate, drawn from archaeological surveys of Palatine and surrounding hills and extrapolated from settlement size. - Early Rome was a small city-state, likely 1,000–5,000 inhabitants at foundation.
- This included patrician clans, plebeian residents, and small numbers of slaves or war captives.
- Patricians: 50–100 heads of leading families (forming early Senate).
- Plebeians: majority of the population, mostly small farmers, artisans, and laborers.
- Slaves/war captives: a minor fraction, usually incorporated after raids or conflicts with nearby settlements.
Auctions?...
Shortly, this historical period cannot enrich our knowledge of auctions at that time, but we may briefly assume that, as there was no monetary system, market tools did not include the definition (what we now call auctions); instead, a barter-based exchange determined the flow of goods.
Numa Pompilius Period (c. 715–673 BCE) – Second King of Rome
Our apologies in advance, if honorable readers will be frustrated with our content layout approach to repeat some circumstances in a new period, but we find the necessity to list all main characteristics for each historical period explicitly, even if they are not undergoing significant evolution.
- Main Political Characteristics
- Pacifist & Religious Focus:
- Legislation & Custom:
- Advisory Nature:
- Centralized Authority:
- Numa emphasized religion, law, and internal order rather than military expansion.
- Introduced laws regulating religious observances, sacred calendars, and civic rituals, aiming to harmonize citizens’ behavior with divine law.
- Relied heavily on counsel of priests and elders, reducing the direct use of force compared to Romulus’ militarized reign.
- Despite focus on religion, retained full imperium as king — ultimate judicial, legislative, and military authority.
- Institutions of the Time
- Senate:
- Pontifical College (Collegium Pontificum):
- Vestal Virgins:
- Other Religious Offices:
- Continued from Romulus’ time; advised Numa on policy, religious law, and civic matters.,Likely increased prestige of priests among senators; Numa emphasized sacred authority over coercive power.
- Established formal priesthood structure; Pontifex Maximus at head.,Oversaw religious law, sacrifices, calendar, and rituals.
- Institution attributed to Numa; ensured continuity of sacred rites and protection of Rome’s hearth.
- Augurs,Flamines,Salii
- Polis Management
- Urban Organization:
- Conflict Resolution:
- Civic Calendar & Public Festivals:
- Focus on ritual spaces and sacred sites, e.g., temples, altars, shrines.
- Oversaw maintenance of boundaries (religious and civic) and public sanctity rather than military defense.
- Emphasized law, ritual, and mediation rather than coercion.
- Social disputes often addressed through religious and moral frameworks.
- Introduced regular religious observances, shaping social cohesion.
- Managed sacred dates, ceremonies, and cults to integrate population and reinforce Numa’s social reforms.
- Democracy & Civic Participation
- No true democracy:
- Indirect citizen engagement:
- Political power remained monarchic, with king’s imperium supreme.
- Civic bodies like the Senate and assemblies existed but functioned largely in advisory capacity, not legislative.
- Through participation in rituals and festivals, citizens were socially involved.
- Religious offices often connected to social strata, giving a structured but hierarchical form of participation.
- Rights & Role of Numa
- Imperium:
- Legislative Role:
- Religious Commander:
- Moral Arbiter:
- Absolute judicial, legislative, and ceremonial authority.
- Issued leges regiae regulating civic, moral, and religious life.
- Controlled rites, calendar, and sacred law; acted as mediator between gods and people.
- Influenced social norms, obligations, and hierarchy through religious-moral legislation.
- Social Structure & Strata Rights
- Patricians:
- Plebeians:
- Slaves / War Captives:
- Client-Patron Networks:
- Held political and religious leadership; many served as senators or priests.
- Exercised power over ceremonial and legal matters.
- Majority of population; engaged in agriculture, crafts, and local services.
- Participated in rituals and festivals; limited formal political rights.
- Minor fraction; provided labor in households and temples.
- Strengthened under Numa’s reign through religious and moral obligations, forming early social cohesion mechanisms.
- Summary of Key Reforms Introduced by Numa Pompilius
- Religious Institutionalization:
- Rituals and Festivals:
- Governance:
- Legal and Moral Codes:
- Strengthened Social Cohesion:
- Urban & Civic Reforms:
- Established Pontifex Maximus, Vestal Virgins, augurs, and flamines.
- public religious observances.
- Minimized military campaigns; promoted social stability.
- Expanded leges regiae to include civic and moral law, emphasizing harmony.
- Patron-client networks and ritual obligations integrated plebeians into civic life.
- Focused on sacred and communal spaces rather than fortifications.
- Population of Numa Pompilius' period - Settlement on the Seven Hills continued to expand slowly during the 8th–7th century BCE.
- Excavations on the Palatine, Capitoline, and Forum areas show growth of huts into denser villages, eventually merging.
Auctions in Numa’s period
We cannot yet operate with actual sources to assert anything concrete without falling into speculation. As economic structures had not evolved into market tools involving auctions, we may only proceed further to the next stage.
| Aspect | Romulus (c. 753–716 BCE) | Numa Pompilius (c. 715–673 BCE) | Key Changes / Reforms Introduced by Numa |
|---|---|---|---|
| Political System | Monarchy with centralized power; king held imperium over military, law, and religion | Monarchy retained; king still held imperium, but focus shifted to religious and legal authority | Reduced militaristic focus; emphasized moral and religious governance |
| Senate | Advisory council of patres (100–300 elders); mostly patricians; no legislative power | Continued Senate, with stronger religious and moral advisory role | Senate became more institutionalized in religious matters; supported king’s peaceful governance |
| Civic Assemblies | Curiate Assembly: family-based; ratified king’s decrees | Assemblies continued but had minor role; citizen participation largely through ritual observances | Civic involvement shifted from political ratification to ceremonial/religious participation |
| Military | King-led army of male citizens; expansionist raids common | Numa minimized military campaigns, promoting peace | Military duty less emphasized; social stability prioritized |
| Law / Legislation | Leges regiae: decrees issued by king, focused on civil and military control | Expanded religious laws, moral codes, and civic regulations | Codified rituals, festivals, and religious obligations; formalized law of conduct |
| Religion & Priesthoods | Rudimentary; early religious rites integrated with king’s authority | Established formal religious offices: Pontifex Maximus, Vestal Virgins, augurs, flamines | Institutionalized religion, codified calendar, and sacred duties; structured priesthoods |
| Ritual Sites / Public Spaces | Early fortifications; Palatine Hill; Vulcanal, Regia, Comitium established | Expanded sacred spaces, temples, altars; regularized public festivals and rituals | Reinforced religious integration into civic life; ritual observances became central to social cohesion |
| Social Structure / Strata Rights | Patricians held power; plebeians mostly laborers; minor slaves | Patricians maintained dominance; plebeians included in ritual and moral framework | Strengthened client-patron networks; reinforced hierarchical but cooperative civic order |
| Economy / Goods Flow | Barter-based, subsistence economy; tribute in-kind | No major economic reforms; Numa did not focus on expansion or markets | Maintained subsistence and tribute systems; peaceful stability favored orderly resource distribution |
| Urban / Polis Management | City walls, Palatine settlement, rudimentary organization | Focus on sacred organization, civic cohesion, and religious oversight | Shifted from militarized urban defense to ritualized civic planning and social order |
| Citizen Rights & Duties | Obliged to military service, contribute labor or goods to king | Civic duties largely religious and moral; participation in festivals and rituals | Civic obligations became ethical/religious rather than military, integrating society through moral norms |
Tullus Hostilius (3rd king of Rome, r. ca. 673–642 BCE)
-
Main Political Characteristics
- Militaristic turn:
- Aggressive foreign policy:
- State consolidation through conquest:
- Ancient writers (Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus) describe him as the opposite of Numa. Where Numa stressed religion and peace, Tullus promoted expansion by arms.
- Wars against Alba Longa, Fidenae, Veii, and the Sabines. The legendary episode of the Horatii and Curiatii duel belongs here (a ritualized conflict resolution between Rome and Alba).
- After Alba Longa’s destruction, Tullus supposedly resettled its population in Rome, swelling Rome’s manpower and extending its patrician houses.}
-
Institutions of that Time
- Kingship (regnum):
- Senate:
- Assembly (comitia curiata):
- Religion:
- Still monarchical, with king as supreme military, judicial, and religious figure.
- Advisory council of patres (elders), as in Romulus’ time, retained prestige but king’s military role overshadowed their influence.
- Still largely ceremonial; citizens ratified decisions but did not direct policy.
- Unlike Numa, Tullus initially neglected cults. Livy claims this impiety led to plague and his downfall — then he tried to restore rites, but the gods (esp. Jupiter) punished him.
-
Polis Management & Social Order
- Urban integration:
- Militarization of society:
- Rights & strata (continuity from Romulus):
- With Alba Longa’s population merged, Rome expanded socially and physically (settling the Caelian Hill).
- Civic duties were increasingly tied to military obligation, reinforcing the warrior role of the citizen.
Patricians (patres):
- Retained dominance in politics and Senate.
Plebeians:
- Increasingly numerous after Alba’s absorption, but rights remained limited; political weight still minimal.
Clients:
- Expanded class, dependent on patrician patrons for protection and representation.
No democracy:
- Authority still concentrated in monarchy + patrician elite. Assemblies functioned but without true legislative power.
- Comparison vs. Romulus & Numa
Romulus :
- Founded institutions, organized Senate, defined patricians/clients. Warrior-king model.
Numa :
- Religious pacifier; instituted priesthoods, cult order, regulated rites.
Tullus :
- Swung back to Romulus’ militarism, expanded Rome through conquest, but without new constitutional reforms — his legacy is territorial/urban, not institutional.
-
Tullus Hostilius – Reforms & Main Changes
- Military focus:
- Population integration:
- Institutional:
- Urban development:
- Economy of the Period
- Organized wars against Alba Longa, Fidenae, Veii, Sabines.
- Legendary duel (Horatii vs. Curiatii) as ritualized warfare institution.
- After Alba Longa’s destruction, transferred much of its population (patricians + commoners) to Rome.
- New patrician families entered the Senate.
- Caelian Hill settled by newcomers.
- No major new civil or religious institutions credited to him (unlike Numa).
- Tried to revive neglected rituals later, but associated with impiety.
- Expanded city space, incorporating new population zones.
- Agriculture: Main basis; conquest brought new land and manpower.
- Labor supply: Influx of Alba Longa population increased available labor and military strength.
- Early integration economy: Merging populations meant new client–patron ties, strengthening patrician estates.
- No evidence of trade reforms or auctions/markets: Unlike later kings (esp. Ancus Marcius, who built the port at Ostia). Under Tullus, focus remained martial, not commercial.
| Aspect | Romulus | Numa Pompilius | Tullus Hostilius |
|---|---|---|---|
| Main Characteristic | Warrior-founder | Religious lawgiver | Warrior-expander |
| Political Institutions | Senate of patres; curiae assemblies; kingship central | ,Priesthoods (Pontifex Maximus, Vestals, Flamines); cult regulation | No new institutions; reinforced Senate with Alba’s patricians |
| Religion | Basic cults, Jupiter Feretrius, augury | Systematic cults, temples, calendars, rituals | Neglected rites → later tried restoring, but seen as impious |
| Social Structure | Patricians, plebeians, clients established | Reinforced class duties via religious legitimation | Expanded patriciate by absorption of Alban houses |
| Economy | Subsistence agriculture, cattle, no formal markets | Same agricultural base, stable/ritual economy | Expansion by conquest, land and manpower increase |
| Military | War with neighbors; defense of settlements | Peaceful reign, avoided wars | Aggressive campaigns; destruction of Alba Longa |
| Urban Development | Initial settlement on Palatine, Forum valley drainage | Religious monuments, shrines | Settlement of Caelian Hill with Alba Longa migrants |
| Democracy? | No — monarchy + Senate dominance | No — monarchy but sacral authority moderated power | No — monarchy + Senate, militaristic elite strengthened |
Ancus Marcius Period
- Main Political Characteristics
Balanced ruler:
- Combined religio (piety, rituals, cults) with arma (military expansion).
Defensive-expansive policy:
- Fought against Latins and other neighbors but focused on consolidating Rome’s hold rather than blind conquest.
Expansion of Roman territory:
- Took land from Latins, brought defeated peoples to Rome, creating a more multicultural city.
- Institutions of the Time
Religious:
- Restored rituals neglected by Tullus Hostilius, following Numa’s tradition.
- Introduced fetiales priests → responsible for rituals of declaring war and peace, formalizing Rome’s “just war” concept.
Political & Legal:
- Strengthened Senate through integration of new patrician houses (from conquered Latin settlements).
- Civic institutions expanded with new citizens.
- Infrastructure / Polis Management:
- Built the first bridge (Pons Sublicius) over the Tiber — crucial for trade and military mobility.
- Established Ostia (Rome’s first port), a key milestone toward Rome’s commercial development.
- Built salt works near Ostia → early state-controlled resource.
- Democracy & Role of the King
- Still monarchy, not democracy.
- Ancus ruled as sole king, advised by Senate, with assemblies playing limited legitimating role.
His legitimacy leaned on both:
- Religious authority (like Numa).
- Military strength (like Tullus).
- Social Structure & Stratum Rights
Patricians:
- Expanded by incorporation of Latin elites; Senate enlarged.
- Continued to dominate politics and priesthoods.
Plebeians:
- Grew in numbers due to settlement of conquered Latins into Rome.
- Had rights of residence but limited political influence.
Clients:
- Increased as new populations needed patrons for integration.
Slaves:
- More war captives introduced from Latin wars.
Result:
- Social complexity increased, with Rome shifting from a tribal settlement toward a more urbanized, mixed society.
- Ancus Marcius – Reforms & Economic Changes
Religious Reform:
- Reestablished rituals neglected since Numa.
- Instituted the fetiales priesthood, who formalized declarations of war and peace, introducing Rome’s idea of “just war.”
Military Expansion & Population Policy:
- Defeated Latin towns; instead of destroying them, integrated their people into Rome.
- Expanded Rome’s population and workforce.
- Enlarged the Senate with new patrician families.
Infrastructure Reforms:
- Built the Pons Sublicius, first bridge over the Tiber → allowed troop movement and improved trade connectivity.
- Founded Ostia, Rome’s first port → entry point for salt, fish, and trade with Etruria and Latium.
- Constructed salt works at the Tiber’s mouth → state-controlled industry.
- Economic Changes
Shift from subsistence to proto-commercial economy:
- Salt production became a revenue and strategic resource (salt roads linked Rome to Latium).
- Increased urbanization from influx of conquered populations created larger local markets.
Imports & Exports:
- Ostia opened direct routes for exchange with Etruria, Latins, and possibly Greek traders.
- Still barter-dominant (no coinage yet), but more structured than in Romulus’ or Numa’s time.
State Role:
- Rome began controlling key resources (salt monopoly).
- Infrastructure (bridge, port) integrated Rome into regional trade.
| King | Political/Institutional | Economy | Society |
|---|---|---|---|
| Romulus (753–716 BCE) | Founder; Senate of 100 patres; basic assemblies. | Barter exchange; agriculture dominant; no coinage; trade minimal. | Stratified: patricians, plebs, clients; slaves from raids. |
| Numa Pompilius (715–673 BCE) | Religious institutions; priesthoods; peaceful governance. | No major economic reform; continuity of subsistence farming. | Stabilized society with religious cohesion; reinforced patrician priestly dominance. |
| Tullus Hostilius (673–642 BCE) | Militaristic expansion; Alba Longa destroyed; Senate enlarged. | Increased war booty; integration of conquered land and people. | Greater plebeian numbers; slaves increased; Senate strengthened. |
| Ancus Marcius (640–616 BCE) | Balanced religious + military; created fetiales; expanded Senate. | Salt works; Ostia founded (port); first bridge over Tiber; proto-commercial expansion. | Integration of Latins into Roman citizen body; social mix widened. |
So, where is the auctions related context? Hey, Authors, you promised!
While Ancus Marcius’ reign laid crucial groundwork for Rome’s future as a commercial hub, the economy was still too rudimentary to speak of structured market tools such as auctions. Exchange remained barter-based, and trade was conducted through direct exchange or state redistribution.
Tarquinius Priscus' Period
- Key Political Traits:
- Centralization of authority:
- Military focus:
- Urban development:
- Religious integration:
- Institutional innovation:
- Strengthened royal power and influence over institutions.
- Expanded Roman territory through campaigns against Latins, Sabines, and other neighboring peoples.
- Initiated large infrastructure projects (city walls, roads, drainage systems).
- Used religious authority to consolidate political power.
- Reorganized Senate and citizen assemblies, laying foundations for Roman civic structure.
- Political Institutions
- The Monarchy
- The Senate
- Comitia Curiata
- Other Offices / Magistracies
- Polis Management
- Military Organization
- Administrative Oversight
King (Rex):
- Supreme political authority; commander-in-chief of the army.
- Religious leader, presiding over sacrifices and ceremonies.
- Could appoint magistrates and officials.
- Controlled administration and justice.
Imperium:
- Legal power to command, including over life and death in some cases; conferred by the Comitia Curiata.
- Composed mainly of patricians (aristocratic families).
- Functioned as an advisory council to the king.
During Tarquinius’ reign:
- The Senate’s role expanded in administrative and military oversight.
- Helped organize public works and manage finances.
- Assembly of Roman citizens divided into curiae (clan-based units).
Functions:
- Formally conferred imperium to the king.
- Ratified some decisions; largely symbolic in power.
- Tarquinius strengthened the assembly’s formal role but ensured ultimate authority remained with the king.
Lictors:
- Bodyguards and attendants of the king; carried fasces as a symbol of authority.
Censors (precursor):
- Early oversight of citizens’ wealth, property, and class status for taxation and military organization.
Military commanders and tribunes:
- Appointed by the king to organize army units.
- Built Cloaca Maxima (major sewer system) to drain marshes.
- Expanded city walls, increasing defense capabilities.
- Constructed Circus Maximus, the first major public space for games and civic events.
- Promoted temples and religious sites, strengthening religious legitimacy.
- Structured the army by curiae and tribes, formalizing early military hierarchy.
- Expanded Rome’s influence through campaigns against Latins, Sabines, and neighboring towns.
- Strengthened coordination between Senate, king, and assemblies.
- Began early forms of bureaucratic management, largely under patrician supervision.
- Democracy
Rome was not democratic under Tarquinius Priscus.
Citizen assemblies existed (Comitia Curiata) but were largely ceremonial:
- Endorsed king’s decrees.
- Ratified appointments and legal acts.
Power structure:
- Patricians dominated political life.
- Plebeians had very limited participation, mainly military service and tax obligations.
Early Roman “democracy” was rudimentary:
- more symbolic than functional, with real power centralized in monarchy and aristocracy.
- Tarquinius Priscus – Reforms
- Political and Institutional Reforms
- Urban and Infrastructure Reforms
- Economic Reforms
Expansion of the Senate
- Increased the number of senators from 100 (under Romulus and early kings) to 200.
- Opened Senate seats to sons of minor or non-senatorial patricians, widening aristocratic base.
- Strengthened Senate’s advisory role to the king.
Reorganization of the Citizen Assembly
- Comitia Curiata maintained but formalized king’s imperium approval process.
- Created greater involvement of curiae in military and civic organization (still limited power).
Creation of Lictors
- Lictors acted as attendants and guards of the king, symbolizing imperium.
Military Organization
- Reorganized the army along curiae and early tribal lines.
- Appointed military tribunes to assist in command.
Cloaca Maxima:
- Major sewer system to drain the Forum and surrounding areas.
City Walls:
- Expansion and fortification of Rome.
Circus Maximus:
- Construction of first major public space for chariot races and games.
Temples:
- Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, reinforcing religious authority.
Public Works and Employment
- Large-scale construction projects created jobs and stimulated local trade.
- Increased demand for stone, timber, and labor, integrating local economies.
Trade and External Relations
- Tarquinius promoted trade with neighboring Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines.
- Strengthened economic ties via diplomacy and military campaigns.
Land Management
- Controlled allocation of public lands (ager publicus).
- Encouraged settlement of conquered territories, increasing agricultural output.
Revenue Organization
- Likely strengthened taxation or tribute collection from conquered towns.
- Early forms of state-managed finances to fund military and urban projects.
| Aspect | Ancus Marcius | Tarquinius Priscus |
|---|---|---|
| Political Reforms | Strengthened Senate, mostly inherited from Romulus | Expanded Senate from 100 → 200, formalized citizen assembly, created lictors |
| Military Policy | Defensive and consolidation; built Ostia as port for trade | Expansionist; military campaigns vs. Latins and Sabines; reorganized army |
| Urban Development | Built first bridge over Tiber (Pons Sublicius) | Built Cloaca Maxima, city walls, Circus Maximus, Temple of Jupiter |
| Economic Focus | Agriculture and land management; Ostia port for trade | Public works stimulate employment; trade with neighbors; organized tribute and land allocation |
| Social Structure | Patricians dominate; plebeians limited | Same; patricians maintain power; minor inclusion in Senate; plebeians limited |
| Religious Policy | Religious rites to legitimize rule | Built temples, reinforced king’s religious authority |
| Administration | Limited bureaucratic oversight | Early administrative system; military tribunes; oversight of citizens’ property and curiae organization |
- Monetary System
- Currency
- Use of Monetary Tools
- Taxation under Tarquinius Priscus
- Tarquinius Priscus’ reign (~616–579 BCE), evidence for formal public markets (“fora” in the sense of structured auctions or trading centers for slaves, horses, ships, and lands) is extremely limited. Let’s clarify this carefully:
- No minted coins yet in Rome (~616–579 BCE).
Economy largely barter-based, supplemented by weighted metal exchange:
- Bronze, iron, or aes rude (rough lumps of bronze) used for trade.
- These metal pieces functioned as tools of value for transactions.
Trade tools:
- Bronze and other metals were cut or weighed for exchanges.
- Value determined by weight and quality rather than official stamp.
Trade and Commerce
- Metals allowed easier exchange than pure barter.
- Used in local markets and settlements, especially in Ostia (under Ancus) and during Tarquinius’ urban projects.
State Projects
- Public works like Cloaca Maxima, city walls, and temples required labor and materials.
- Payment was often in kind or weighted metals, facilitating employment and trade.
Military
- Soldiers and mercenaries could be paid in metal lumps or goods.
- Tribute from conquered towns often accepted in metal or agricultural produce.
Tribute and Taxes
Rome collected tribute from conquered territories:
- Latins, Sabines, and other towns paid goods, metal, or livestock.
Citizens in Rome paid taxes or labor contributions for public works:
- Labor service (corvée) for roads, drainage, or military projects.
- Occasional contributions of metal for state projects.
Early Taxation Mechanisms
Census-based organization
- Citizens were assessed by property and social class.
- Wealthier patricians contributed more in taxes or military equipment.
Tribute from allies
- Neighboring towns supplied materials, soldiers, or metals.
- Tarquinius may have systematized collection, improving efficiency.
Economic Function of Taxes
- Funded public works, religious institutions, and military campaigns.
- Redistributed resources to strengthen the king’s authority and urban development.
- Created a proto-state economy: centralized collection and allocation of resources.
Slaves
- Trade of slaves existed in early Rome, but mostly informally.
- Likely sourced from:
- - Prisoners of war (Latins, Sabines, Etruscans).
- - Debt bondage among Romans.
- Public slave markets (like later Rome’s macellum or forum venalium) did not yet exist. Transactions were probably conducted directly among elites or at the king’s discretion, often as part of distribution after conquest.
Horses
- Horses were high-value military and transport assets.
- Trade likely limited to elite households, cavalry owners, and the state.
- No archaeological or textual evidence indicates a formal marketplace for horses at this early period.
Boats / Shipping
- Ancus Marcius had already built Ostia, the first port at the Tiber mouth.
- Tarquinius likely used the port for trade with neighboring communities (Latins, Etruscans), but commercial shipping was state-directed or negotiated among elites.
- No public docks or trading posts for private boat sales have been documented for this time.
Land
- Land (ager publicus) from conquered territories was allocated by the king.
- Patricians and Roman elites received plots; plebeians had limited access.
- Land sales and public auctions as a regular civic practice did not exist; distribution was largely political and military in nature.
The Authors Find Appropriate place to insert Comparative overview the Ancient Rome vs Greece Poleis Development Stance
| Aspect | Greek Poleis | Rome (Tarquinius Priscus – Servius Tullius) |
|---|---|---|
| Money | Coinage already in circulation (Lydia → Greek cities c. 6th c. BCE). Used standardized silver and electrum coins. Enabled complex trade, credit, and accounting. | No coinage yet. Trade relied on barter, weighted bronze (aes rude), or metal ingots. No formal exchange rules. |
| Markets | Agora: structured marketplace for goods, slaves, crafts, and services. Auctions and contracts possible. | Forum: mainly political and social center. Exchange informal, local, mostly in-kind or metal-weight transactions. |
| Accounting / Trade Algorithms | Early accounting methods existed: weighing coins, standard prices, contracts, even primitive credit arrangements. | No formalized symbolic exchange system. Value determined ad hoc (weight/quality of bronze), no contracts with guaranteed “checks” or promissory instruments. |
| Economic Integration | Mediterranean-wide trade, colonies, inter-polis commerce. Prices somewhat standardized. | Local and regional trade (Latins, Etruscans), mostly subsistence/agricultural. Rome not integrated into broader trade networks yet. |
Servius Tullius' Period
Main Political Characteristics
Sixth king of Rome, traditionally credited with major constitutional and social reforms.
First Roman king of uncertain/free birth (according to legend, son of a slave woman), which influenced his policies towards commoners.
Authority still monarchical, but his reforms laid foundations for later Republican institutions.
Institutions of the Time
The Census:
- Introduced the first systematic population and property census, dividing citizens into classes based on wealth and arms-bearing ability.
Centuriate Assembly (Comitia Centuriata):
- Created as a new political body organised by centuries (military units), replacing family/clan divisions with class-based organisation.
Senate:
- Continued to exist as patrician advisory body, but its dominance began to be counterbalanced by the new assemblies.
Polis Management
Expanded Rome’s urban territory, including fortification of the Servian Wall (traditionally attributed to him).
Organised population into tribes based on place of residence, strengthening ties between Rome’s expanding population and civic identity.
Regularised taxation and military service according to census categories, ensuring more equitable distribution of duties.
Democracy, or not?
Still a monarchy — Servius retained supreme imperium.
However, his wealth-based assemblies introduced a proto-democratic element, where voting power corresponded to economic contribution.
First institutional shift away from purely aristocratic control.
Social Structure and Strata Rights
Patricians:
- Retained elite status, but their exclusive dominance weakened by census-based reforms.
Plebeians:
- Gained new recognition as organised voting blocs within the Centuriate Assembly.
Clients:
- Continued dependence on patrician patrons, but had more structured civic roles.
Slaves/War Captives:
- Growing in number, but without rights; Servius’ own legendary origin blurred lines of birth/status in narratives.
- Servius Tullius’ Reforms (c. 578–535 BCE)
- Political Reforms
- Social Reforms
- Economic Reforms
Census:
- First systematic registration of citizens by wealth, property, and capacity for military service.
Class System:
- Created five property-based classes + the capite censi (“head count,” poorest with no property).
Centuriate Assembly (Comitia Centuriata):
- Voting now tied to centuries (military/economic units) instead of clan/curiae → diluted patrician monopoly.
Tribal Organisation:
- Established 4 urban tribes (later expanded) based on residence, binding newcomers to civic structure.
- Broadened participation of plebeians in assemblies (though still weighted by wealth).
- Gave non-patricians a clearer civic identity within Rome.
- Strengthened client-patron system via structured obligations.
- Introduced taxation proportional to wealth (census-based).
- Ensured military equipment was supplied by each citizen according to class.
- Formalised land and property assessment for redistribution, tribute, and state projects.
- Attributed with building projects, including expansion of the Servian Wall and the first stone temple to Diana on the Aventine (sign of religious centralisation and proto-federal role).
Ancus Marcius vs. Servius Tullius
| Aspect | Ancus Marcius (640–616 BCE) | Servius Tullius (578–534 BCE) |
|---|---|---|
| Economic Base | Predominantly agrarian; farming and livestock. Limited surplus production. | Still agrarian but with structured taxation and census-based resource allocation. First real attempt to quantify economy. |
| Infrastructure for Trade | Built the first bridge across the Tiber (Pons Sublicius), founding Ostia (Rome’s first port). Enabled salt and river trade. | Expanded city boundaries and urban structures. Market space inferred but not archaeologically attested. City walls (Servian Wall) provided security for trade. |
| Monetary System | No evidence of coinage or money; barter and redistribution dominated. | Still pre-monetary, but census may have used rough valuations (land, livestock, metal). No coinage yet in Rome; earliest Roman coinage is later (c. 4th century BCE). |
| Taxation | Not systematic. Revenue mainly from conquest, tribute, and state land. | Introduced census → structured taxation by property class. Aimed at proportional contribution to army and state. |
| Market Structure | No formal markets, only proto-exchanges at settlements or sanctuaries. | Early organization of economic space suggested (Forum Boarium area). No auction or structured market institutions yet. |
| External Trade | Salt trade at Ostia, riverine commerce along Tiber. Some contacts with Latium and Etruria. | Broader connections via Etruscan influence. Imported pottery and luxury goods suggest trade links with Mediterranean. |
| Slave Trade | War captives likely absorbed into households. No evidence of structured slave markets. | Same pattern: captives used as domestic or agrarian labor. No open market attested. |
| Horse & Military Assets | Horses part of aristocratic wealth (for cavalry). No market exchange recorded. | Horses classified within census (equites), showing early institutional role in economy. |
| Ships & Seafaring | Ostia = salt export hub, primitive seafaring. | No independent naval trade, but more structured urban demand (construction, goods). |
| Archaeological Evidence | Ostia remains, Tiber bridge traces, salt production hints. | Imported pottery, Servian Wall foundations, burials with imported goods (Etruscan/Greek connections). |
Tarquinius Superbus (534–509 BCE)
Economy Overview
Monetary
Still pre-coinage Rome: coin minting begins only in the early Republic (c. 4th century BCE).
Payment and valuation likely in bronze ingots (aes rude), cattle, or weighted metal pieces.
Wealth measured in land, livestock, and movable goods.
Taxation
Tribute and levies imposed heavily, especially on conquered Latin and Volscian communities.
Archaeological/literary tradition:
- forced labor and corvée (e.g., for Jupiter Optimus Maximus temple).
Census structure from Servius Tullius probably weakened; replaced by king’s autocratic exactions.
Market Structure
Some form of market activity existed in Forum Boarium and Forum Romanum (archaeologically attested use as communal spaces).
Still no structured auction or regulated commercial institutions.
Trade remained informal, barter-based, with redistribution under royal control.
Slave Trade
Sources mention extensive use of forced labor, particularly for monumental construction.
Captives from wars supplied domestic and agrarian workforce.
No evidence of independent slave markets in Rome; more likely redistribution directly under royal authority.
Horses
Horses associated with the equites class and military cavalry.
No evidence of open horse markets, but aristocracy’s possession of horses tied to military service.
Ships & Seafaring
Rome’s access to Ostia (founded earlier by Ancus Marcius) remained crucial.
Likely use of river transport for timber, stone, and grain.
No independent Roman merchant fleet yet; imports came via Etruscan/Greek traders.
Export–Import
Imports:
- luxury goods
- Greek pottery
- Etruscan bronzes
- possibly wine and oil.
Exports:
- salt (from Ostia)
- timber
- agricultural surplus.
Evidence suggests increasing Mediterranean connections, especially via Etruria and Campania.
Archaeological Facts
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Capitoline Hill):
- monumental building using foreign artisans and materials → proof of resource mobilization.
Cloaca Maxima (drainage of Forum valley):
- massive public works
- employing forced labor.
Imported pottery and luxury items found in Rome show contact with Greek and Etruscan trade networks.
Reforms and Policies of Tarquinius Superbus
Social Reforms (or rather, distortions)
Authoritarian rule:
- Tarquinius ruled as a tyrant, without consulting the Senate. He curtailed senatorial authority, executing or exiling members who opposed him.
Strain on classes:
- Heavy labour was imposed on the plebeians through state projects (e.g., the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus). This widened the gap between the aristocracy and commoners.
Patronage and fear:
- He maintained his position not through consensus, but by intimidation and strategic marriages, most notably his own marriage to Tullia, which helped secure his accession through violence.
Military Reforms
Campaigns of expansion:
Tarquinius focused on aggressive wars against neighbouring Latin cities and the Volsci.
Heavy reliance on booty and tribute:
- Conquered territories were heavily taxed; resources and captives were brought back to Rome.
Alliances:
- Strengthened Rome’s political-military presence by securing treaties, including with Gabii (where Sextus Tarquinius infiltrated and betrayed the city).
Entertainment / Public Works
The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill:
- A monumental project symbolising Rome’s growing power.
The Cloaca Maxima:
- Completion of Rome’s great sewer, which drained marshes and created usable urban land (especially the Forum Romanum).
Games and Festivals:
- Expanded public games (precursors to ludi) in order to gain public favour, though they remained tightly controlled by the monarchy.
Republican Approach (if any)
Almost none. Tarquinius epitomised monarchy at its most autocratic.
His dismissal of the Senate and centralisation of power directly triggered discontent that fuelled the transition to the Republic.
The episode of Lucretia’s rape by Sextus Tarquinius became the moral justification for ending monarchy, giving rise to Republican ideals of shared power and rejection of kingship.
As our honourable Reader may notice, we have briefly passed through the early Ancient Roman period of the Seven Kings. In our review, we have unfortunately been unsuccessful in tracing any kind of hint of steady, established market tools, such as financial instruments (which at that time were already well developed in the Greek poleis, along with strong trading traditions in the corresponding period of Ancient Greece). Thus, auctions as a tool for the movement of goods on the “market sea” have not yet been detected in this article.
But we have done a great job: the evolution has been aligned in the article, showing the trends towards the increasing complexity of social interactions within Roman society. We therefore propose you follow us into the next Roman period. This time we promise you that the theme of Auctions in the Market Tools of Ancient Rome will be reliably found there. Hurry up…