We are an ordinary family in an Ancient Greek Polis. Let's clarify: where does our income come from?

Our family inherited a small parcel of land just outside our polis, about 1 stremma** (≈0.1 hectares / 0.25 acres), where we grow around 30 medimnoi** of wheat (≈450 kg / 990 lbs). We also keep a small bird farm producing about 15 dodeka** eggs per week (≈180 eggs). Adult sons sell them daily at the polis market near the central Agora. Because it is a prime trading spot, we pay roughly 30% of the sold price to the telōnai (sometimes, if lucky, the tax farmer accepts eggs directly). All coins collected are used for long-term goods, such as smith services or pieces of bronze.

• If we are ordinary citizens (not engaged in import-export operations), taxation approaches were close to modern analogies:
  • The system was transaction-based, similar to modern sales tax.
  
  
  • You reported what you sold, paid the corresponding percentage (to the city or the tax farmer), and that was it.
  
  
  • No flat “per-head” obligations, no mandatory registration unless you engaged in larger-scale commerce.
  
  
  • The main difference from modern systems is that proofs were often based on witness accounts or public oversight, rather than digital or bank records.
  
  

Now we come to a more speculative theme: High-Value Goods (horses, large parcels, luxury items)

Ancient Greece Luxury Goods

• Soil is the Soul and Blood of Polis Vitality!
  • In classical Athens, all land technically belonged to the polis or was under its authority. Citizens didn’t “buy” land in the modern sense in most cases.
  
  
  • The polis (city-state) controlled public land, called kleros (plural kleroi), which could be assigned to citizens, often for agriculture.
  
  
  • Klerouchiai (colonial allotments): When Athens founded colonies, it often assigned parcels of land to citizens as a way to settle and secure territory.
  
  
  • Public allotments in Attica: Within Attica, some land parcels were distributed to citizens, sometimes by lot (random assignment) or through state grants.
  
  
  • This was particularly important for lower-class citizens (thetes) who didn’t own land—they could receive plots to farm.
  
  
  • Most land outside the city center was not freely sold on a market in the way modern property is.
  
  
  • Citizens could inherit land, or in some cases purchase it from other citizens, but the original parcel often came from a state grant or assignment.
  
  
  • Large tracts could also be leased by the state to citizens in exchange for taxes or military service.
  
  
• Land market overview.
  • Once a citizen family received or acquired land (kleros or private plot), it could be passed down by inheritance.
  
  
  • A citizen could farm it themselves or have tenants work it.
  
  
  • Land ownership tended to stay within families, often divided among sons.
  
  
• Selling or Transferring Land
  • Private sale was possible, but:
    • The sale usually had to be between citizens.
    
    
    • Civic approval might be required if the land was originally a public grant (kleros). The polis had a say to prevent the concentration of land in a few hands.
    
    
  • Partial sale or subdivision:
    • Families could sell part of a parcel, though excessive fragmentation was discouraged.
    
    
    • Some plots were small enough that splitting them could reduce their economic viability.
    
    
  • Restrictions & Social Context
    • Hippias and Solon reforms: Solon (6th century BCE) allowed more flexibility in property transfer but tried to prevent extreme debt and land loss among citizens.
    
    
    • Non-citizens (metics, foreigners) generally could not own land; sales were mostly within citizen families.
    
    
    • Selling a plot to someone outside the polis or a non-citizen was often forbidden.
    
    
• A citizen family could sell land or parts of it, but usually to other citizens and sometimes under state regulation, especially if the land had originally been a public grant.


• Land tended to remain in families, especially for agricultural purposes.

So, to become a plot owner, the only small obstacle is this: you must be a member of the polis!

1. Citizenship Basics
   • In classical Athens, citizenship was a privilege that came with political rights, legal protections, and land/family inheritance.
   • Only free adult males born of two Athenian parents (after 451 BCE; before that, rules were looser) were automatically citizens.
   • Citizenship could not be bought in the usual sense.
2. How Citizenship Could Be Granted
   • By birth: the main rule.
   • By decree of the Assembly (ekklesia): exceptional cases, usually for services to the polis, e.g., a foreigner who saved Athens in war.
   • By adoption: rare and formalized, often with Assembly approval.
3. Restrictions & Consequences
   • Citizenship carried obligations: military service, taxes, and loyalty to the polis.
   • It was highly regulated because the polis wanted to ensure political stability.
   • No market existed to buy citizenship; attempts to sell it were illegal and politically risky.

Based on these facts, we can conclude: Only citizens are eligible to buy a land plot. If you are an alien to the polis, there is no way to participate in trades or auctions to become a landowner in ancient Athens. Pity? Me too...

But if you are a member of the polis, under certain conditions you could participate in auctions of plots. The deal had to strictly comply with polis regulations; otherwise, your purchase would never be legally recognized, and ownership would not be granted.

What the Greeks Are Telling Us?

All of these quotations we will not discuss as the authors’ points of view, but consider as evidence to analyze the phenomenon as is.

From the testimonies of Ancient Greek contemporaries, we can clearly see that slavery at that time was a subject of monetization. If debt is understood as a measurable sum of money, then slavery could likewise be recalculated into a corresponding sum of money or its equivalent, which might also be expressed in a specified amount of valuable goods.

The act of enslavement was not only connected to debts, but also served as a punishment for violations of social behavioral standards. Moreover, as we can see, slaves were not limited to private service but also held roles as public servants.

At the same time, fleeing the polis was the only way to escape such a fate. Yet running away from the city did not guarantee freedom or even survival. Abroad, without the polis’ protection, human life was absolutely ‘price-less’—in the truest, most ironic sense of the word’s suffix. And if you are suggesting that you’ve escaped slavery, you are an extremely optimistic dreamer! Anyone with force-power may capture you, and forcibly drag you to the polis’ slavery market.

And this is a way to become a slave in an Ancient Greek polis. So, when you take a trip to the ancient polis, keep it in mind!

This Is Sparta...? Legendary Sparta and its warriors, but behind the legends...

Unfortunately, we have very limited facts about Spartan politics related to helots (slaves), but some data are available.

• Helot Status and Control

The helots were a subjugated population in ancient Sparta, primarily consisting of the original inhabitants of Laconia and Messenia, who were reduced to servitude following Spartan conquests. They were tied to the land and primarily engaged in agricultural labor, supporting the Spartan citizenry. The exact nature of their servitude is debated among scholars, with some viewing them as state-owned serfs rather than chattel slaves.

• Spartan Treatment and Control Mechanisms

Public Humiliation: Helots were subjected to public drunkenness and forced to perform degrading acts during public festivals to instill fear and demonstrate their subjugation.

Crypteia: A secret police force tasked with monitoring and suppressing potential helot uprisings. They were authorized to kill helots deemed dangerous to Spartan stability.

Military Service: Helots were sometimes compelled to serve in military campaigns, such as the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC, where they accompanied Spartan forces. However, there is no evidence to suggest that they were granted freedom or citizenship as a result of their service.



• Trade and Sale of Helots

While there is no direct evidence from ancient sources that helots were sold or traded across Spartan borders, some scholars suggest that Spartans might have shared or transferred helots under certain circumstances. For instance, Xenophon mentions that Spartans shared helots in times of necessity, indicating some flexibility in their management.

• Wars and Impact on Helot Population

While ancient Greek sources provide some insights into the status and treatment of helots in Sparta, direct evidence regarding their sale or trading is scarce. The available accounts primarily focus on the mechanisms of control and the harsh conditions under which helots lived. Further archaeological evidence and scholarly research may shed more light on this aspect of Spartan society.

• But what about the overall Ancient Greek slavery policy? The theme still seems unclear...

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In Ancient Greece, there was a common practice of degrading prisoners of war to the status of slaves.

Thus were the Thessalians treated by Daochus, Cineas, and Thrasydaeus; the Arcadians, by Cercidas, Hieronymus, Eucalpidas; the Argians, by Myrtes, Telademus, Mnaseas; the Phocians, by Phayllus, Hieronymus, Eucalpidas; the Locrians, by Phayllus, Hieronymus, Eucalpidas; the Boeotians, by Phayllus, Hieronymus, Eucalpidas.
Demosthenes – On the Crown (Oration 18)
From Demosthenes we learn that three thousand prisoners of war were taken by the general Chabrias after the battle of Naxos in 376 B.C., and sold into slavery.

There is slavery by law as well as by nature. The law of which I speak is a sort of convention—the law by which whatever is taken in war is supposed to belong to the victors.
Aristotle – Politics (Book I)

The city of pigs could acquire slaves someday if it were lured into a war.
Plato – Republic (Book I)



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• About the legal status of slaves in the ancient Hellenistic tradition...

Legal Rights and Protections

Solon's Reforms in Athens:

In the 6th century BCE, the Athenian legislator Solon introduced reforms that provided some protections for slaves. His laws forbade the physical abuse of slaves and allowed them to seek asylum in temples if mistreated. Additionally, slaves had the right to purchase their freedom, and some were compensated for their labor.

Public Slaves:

In Athens, there were state-owned slaves known as 'demosioi.' These slaves were employed in various public services and were sometimes compensated for their work. They were also protected by laws that prohibited their mistreatment.

Gortyn Code in Crete:

The Gortyn Code, a legal inscription from the 5th century BCE, provides insights into the legal status of slaves in Crete. It includes provisions on the sale, inheritance, and punishment of slaves, indicating a structured legal framework governing slavery.

Aristotle's Views:

In his work 'Economics,' Aristotle discusses the treatment of slaves, advising that they should be provided with proper clothing, food, and rest. He also suggests that cruelty towards slaves should be avoided and that they should be motivated with promises of emancipation.



Limitations and Contradictions

Despite these protections, slaves in the Hellenistic world had limited legal rights. They were generally considered property and had no legal standing in court unless under specific circumstances. For instance, in Athens, the testimonies of slaves could only be accepted in court if extracted under torture and with the master's permission.

Additionally, while some city-states had laws protecting slaves, these laws were not uniformly enforced, and the treatment of slaves could vary widely depending on the owner and the region.

In summary, while there were instances of legal protections and rights afforded to slaves in the Hellenistic world, these were exceptions rather than the rule. Slaves remained largely at the mercy of their owners, with limited avenues for redress or improvement of their status.

The Role of Horses in Ancient Greek Society

• Military Importance:

Horses were crucial in warfare, particularly in cavalry units. The Greek military employed cavalry for reconnaissance, flanking maneuvers, and, in some cases, direct combat.

• Transportation and Prestige:

Owning horses was a symbol of wealth and status. The aristocratic class, known as the 'hippeis,' were required to maintain horses and serve as cavalrymen, reflecting their elevated position in society.

• Religious Significance:

Horses were associated with various deities, notably Poseidon, the god of the sea and horses. Rituals and sacrifices involving horses were conducted to honor the gods and seek their favor.

Philosophical Perspectives on Horses

• Plato's Allegory of the Chariot:

In the Phaedrus, Plato presents the soul as a charioteer driving a chariot pulled by two horses, symbolizing different aspects of human nature. One horse is noble and represents rational desires, while the other is unruly, symbolizing base appetites. This allegory underscores the philosophical view of the soul's struggle between reason and passion.

• Xenophon's On Horsemanship:

Xenophon, a philosopher and military leader, wrote extensively on the care and training of horses. He emphasized the importance of understanding a horse's nature and maintaining a harmonious relationship between horse and rider. His works have been influential in the field of equestrian studies.

• Let's walk through some historical figures' notes about these honorary animals:

First the charioteer of the human soul drives a pair, and secondly one of the horses is noble and of noble breed, but the other is quite the opposite in breed and character. Therefore, in our case, the driving is necessarily difficult and troublesome.
Plato, Phaedrus

The majesty of men themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling of such animals.
Xenophon, On Horsemanship

Till now we are quietly come to evaluation of such a luxury trading subjects as land plots, horses, and slaves, what were mostly valuable, and sometimes very desirable, remarkable goods of Hellenistic life.

Here we will consider average prices at that times.

Slave Prices in Ancient Greece

• • Skilled slaves (e.g., craftsmen, educators): Approximately 5–10 minae (1 mina ≈ 100 drachmas).
  • Unskilled laborers: Around 2 minae.
  • Common male slaves: About 0.5 mina.
• Horse Prices in Ancient Greece

In 421 BCE, a horse in Athens cost 1,200 silver Attic drachmas. Considering that a skilled worker's daily wage was about one drachma, this price was substantial. Owning and maintaining a horse was an expensive matter.

• Land Prices in Ancient Greece
  • Athens
    
    Land Ownership: Adult male citizens had the right to own land; foreigners and metics could purchase land only if they obtained a grant of engktēsis.
    Land Prices: Typical prices for land ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 drachmas, depending on location and quality.
    
  • Sparta
    
    Land Ownership: Land ownership was central to Spartan society, with land allotments (kleroi) distributed among citizens.
    Land Prices: Specific pricing records are scarce, but land was considered a vital asset for maintaining the Spartiates class's military readiness.
    

Converting Table of Ancient Greek Currency to Modern Values

We use ordinary wine as a comparative unit to convert ancient currency into modern values.

Grain and wine in antiquity were universal staples, similar to bread and beer in medieval Europe.

Both were tightly linked to daily caloric value and agricultural productivity, making them reliable price indicators.

Wine works well as a baseline because:

It was consumed across all classes (from cheap diluted kraters to elite vintages).

It was monetized (used for pay, offerings, and even medical purposes).

It had relatively standardized volume units (e.g., χούς ~ 3.2 liters, κοτύλη ~ 0.27 liters).

Now is it harvest time? And your anticipations clash with the reality of unfolding events!

• First of all, let us briefly describe the general trading approaches used in Ancient Greece for these expensive 'goods' and trading tools.

Slave Trade
- Auction System: Slaves were often sold through public auctions, where buyers could inspect and bid on individuals.

- Private Sales: Private transactions also occurred, typically involving written contracts witnessed by officials.



Horse Trade
- Public Auctions: Horses, especially those used in races or warfare, were sold at public auctions.

- Private Transactions: Wealthy individuals could also engage in private sales, often involving negotiations and contracts.



Land Transactions
- Public Registers: Land sales were recorded in public registers, ensuring transparency and legal validity.

- Private Agreements: While some transactions were private, the involvement of witnesses and sometimes state officials was common to prevent disputes.

So, how the auctions were designed in the Ancient Greece? We have no answers...yet..

1. How slave auctions typically worked
   • Venue and actors
     - Slaves were sold in market-areas (the agora or specialised market-places), by ship at ports when brought from overseas, or at festivals/temple precincts when large crowds made sales efficient. Sales could be run by private dealers (traders/merchants) or occur as public sales taxed/overseen by civic authorities.
     
     
   • Public vs private sale
     - Private bargains: a buyer and seller (or broker) agree a price.
     
     - Public auctions: used for large lots (e.g., captured prisoners), estate sales, or when civic authorities disposed of property. Large shipments of slaves were sometimes auctioned publicly. Evidence in oratorical cases records both kinds.
     
     
   • Price setting and factors
     - Prices varied with age, sex, health, skill/specialization (skilled craftsmen, household servants, miners differed greatly). Supply fluctuations mattered (4th c. BCE saw abundant slaves → lower prices). There were market taxes in some cities on sales.
     
     
   • Inspection and implicit warranties
     - Buyers commonly inspected captive persons or animals. If a buyer was deceived (e.g., sold a crippled worker without warning) there were legal remedies — sales could be annulled or compensated. Ancient sources and later legal scholarship report such buyer protections.
     
     
   • Documentation & litigation
     - Disputes appear in courtroom speeches (Attic orators). These speeches are a prime source of how sales went wrong and how courts treated transactions. Demosthenes (and other orators) discuss shipment, sale, and litigation over slaves.
     
     
2. How horse sales of auctions designed?
   • Horses as high-value goods
     - Horses were expensive, prestigious, and commonly owned by wealthier citizens (cavalry, chariot-racing owners). Because of cost and maintenance they were traded less frequently than low-value livestock, and sales often involved specialized dealers, breeders, or sales at hippodromes/assemblies tied to equestrian events.
     
     
   • Buyers and purposes
     - Purchases were for cavalry service, chariot-racing (public games), breeding, or display. Ownership implied continuing expense (stabling, grooms, fodder), so buyers tended to be wealthier individuals or city/state bodies when acquiring mounts.
     
     
   • Inspection & guarantees
     - As with slaves: inspection mattered. For high-value horses, buyers examined soundness and pedigree; dispute records and literary references show cancelled sales or legal actions when animals were unsound or misdescribed.
     
     

Representative historical records

• Demosthenes and Attic orators — courtroom speeches that describe shipment/sale disputes and can give concrete procedures and numbers (e.g., cases of slave-shipments gone wrong). See scholarly treatments of Demosthenes’ cases.
• Economic histories / Cambridge volume — detailed modern reconstructions of the slave market (prices, taxation, regional differences). Good for comparative numbers and market structure.
• General syntheses on slavery in ancient Greece — surveys that discuss legal status, markets, manumission, buyer protections, and sample prices. Useful for legal and social context.
• Specialist studies on horses and hippology — scholarship and museum/department summaries about the role, cost, and sale contexts of horses in Greek society.

Concrete examples & snippets you can consult next

• Demosthenes’ speech(s) discussing maritime shipments and slave cargoes (use the edition/commentary cited in the Lewis paper). That scholarship reconstructs an episode where a shipment of many slaves was litigated after disaster.
• Cambridge: chapter “The Market for Slaves in the Fifth- and Fourth-Century Aegean” — contains price tables, tax evidence, and market dynamics.

Quick bibliography

• Overview: Slavery in ancient Greece
• Market analysis: Cambridge volume chapter on the slave market.
• Case study / primary evidence: “A Cargo of Slaves? Demosthenes 34.10” (Lewis).
• Hippos: The Horse in Ancient Athens