Cultural Transition From African Prehistory to Sumer and Egypt, Or Great Migration Pathway
A widely spread approach of attempting to support any claim with notifications akin to “British Royal Society Discovers That Wet Underwear Is a Sign of Genius” is not our way. When certain points need to be declared, our honorable reader should be patient and ready to consider the arguments that supplement the declarations we provide in this article.
Fairly speaking, modern anthropology generally accepts the hypothesis of a human migration pathway from the African continent. Instead of relying on statements like “Some Society Discovers,” this hypothesis is supported not only by declarations but also by numerous archaeological evidences (see the link below: “Great Migration Pathway… see more”).
In this chapter, we will uncover the evolution of measurement systems, and it is logically appropriate to walk through the Mediterranean area, then return to Africa with its Egyptian civilisation, and continue to the Jewish kingdom.
Between The Tigris And Euphrates, Or Cradle Of Civilisations
This chapter is dedicated to the Sumerian Kingdom. Here, we briefly outline the main social and cultural characteristics of the civilisation, while a more detailed review awaits us in the discussion of the metrological tools of the culture that have been discovered to the present day.
About Sumer, Or What We Know Now...
The period, usually encountered by researchers as the temporal framework for describing the Sumerian civilisation as both a socio-cultural and historical phenomenon, is dated roughly to 4500–1900 BCE. Briefly, the area encompassed within their sovereignty covers mostly southern Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq), between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In most cases, the Sumerians are considered the world’s first urban civilisation, credited with early developments in writing (cuneiform), law codes, irrigation, and organized city-states.
In short terms, the Sumerian economy may be described as based on agricultural surplus via irrigation, trade networks with Anatolia, the Persian Gulf, and the Levant, and craft specialization including metallurgy, pottery, and textiles.
Let us now turn to the social structure. One may reasonably ask why we include such extra-informative data, especially when a reader might be visiting this article solely to learn about the units of length used by the culture. In our defense, we must emphasize that without understanding the cultural context, any single artifact is scarcely interpretable. Each artifact serves as a manifestation from which we derive meaning, allowing us to interpret it (in the context of this article) as a measurement unit.
Below, you may find a table of the most important Sumerian archaeological artifacts, including their type, purpose, and approximate dates. This is factual and concise, suitable for research reference.
| Artifact / Object | Type | Purpose / Use | Excavation Site | Approx. Date (BCE) | Notes / Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clay accounting tablets | Administrative | Recording rations, taxes, trade | Ur, Lagash, Girsu | 2100–2000 | Documented economic activities; critical for metrology studies |
| Mathematical tablets | Educational / Administrative | Arithmetic, geometry, metrology | Ur, Nippur, Uruk | 2000–1800 | Show use of sexagesimal system; measure length, area, volume |
| Balance stones / weights | Standardized weights | Trade, taxation | Ur, Kish, Lagash | 2500–2000 | Basis for shekel, mina, talent; standardisation of commerce |
| Cubit rods / measuring rods | Length measurement | Land surveying, construction | Ur, Nippur | 2500–2000 | Standardisation of nindan, šu, kush |
| Cylinder seals | Administrative / Authentication | Trade contracts, legal documents | Ur, Uruk | 3000–2000 | Ensured transaction authenticity; used in record keeping |
| Ziggurats | Religious / Administrative | Temples, economic centres | Ur (Ziggurat of Ur), Uruk, Lagash | 2100–2000 | Temples served as both religious and economic hubs |
| Rationing bowls / vessels | Volume measurement | Grain, beer, oil rations | Lagash, Girsu | 2100–2000 | Units: sila, ban, gur; evidence of economic metrology |
| Land survey inscriptions | Stone / Clay | Boundary marking, field measurement | Lagash, Girsu | 2500–2000 | Standard lengths (nindan, šu) used in land allocation |
| Astronomical / Calendar tablets | Observational | Timekeeping, irrigation, festivals | Nippur, Ur | 2000–1800 | Early astronomy; linked to practical scheduling of resources |
| Royal inscriptions / Steles | Political / Religious | Laws, deeds, achievements | Ur, Uruk, Lagash | 2600–2000 | Record kings’ activities; sometimes contain standard measures |
Sumerian Social, And Economic Structure Overview...
Each city was a self-contained urban centre, typically organized around a ziggurat, a massive temple complex that dominated the skyline. The ziggurat was not only a religious focal point but also the administrative hub, where economic activities like storage, rationing, and taxation were organized. Surrounding the temple were the palaces of rulers, homes of the elite, marketplaces, workshops for artisans, and residential quarters for ordinary citizens. Canals and irrigation networks extended outward, linking the city to its agricultural hinterland.
The king held political, religious, and military authority. He oversaw the defense of the city, controlled the distribution of resources, and directed public works like canals, walls, and temples. Kings also supervised standardisation of measures, ensuring that length, volume, and weight units were uniform across the city and its territories. Famous kings include Gilgamesh of Uruk, celebrated for his monumental constructions and city walls, and Ur-Nammu of Ur, known for codifying law and commissioning ziggurats.
Trade in Sumerian cities was highly organized. Local and long-distance commerce involved goods like grain, oil, beer, textiles, and metals. Merchants used standardized weights and measures to conduct fair exchange, while temples and palaces managed taxation and resource distribution. Taxes could be paid in grain, livestock, labor, or precious metals, and were meticulously recorded on clay tablets.
Sumerian “scientists” were temple-affiliated specialists who applied practical knowledge to administration, trade, and construction. We may subdivide their role to several classes of implementation
Scribes: Maintained cuneiform records of trade, taxation, land, and labor. They were essential in recording and applying standardized measures of length, volume, and weight.
Mathematicians: Created arithmetic tables, multiplication tables, and geometric calculations, supporting construction, land measurement, and economic management.
Surveyors: Measured fields, canals, and building sites using standard rods and units (nindan, šu, kush). Their work ensured fair taxation and accurate construction.
Astronomers / Calendar Specialists: Observed celestial bodies to create lunar calendars, which determined irrigation schedules and religious festivals.
Weighing / Volume Specialists: Standardized units like shekel (by the way, do you noted some naming relation to modern Israel currency?), mina, talent (weight) and sila, ban, gur (volume), ensuring uniformity in trade and taxation.
But What ABout Sumerian Measurement Units?
| Category | Unit / Element | Approx. Metric | Subdivisions | Purpose / Use | Evidence / Artifact | Source / Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Length | Ammatu (Cubit) | ~49.5 cm | 1 nindan = 12 ammatu | Construction, urban planning, canal layout | Measuring rods, architectural plans, bricks | Kramer 1981; Postgate 1992 |
| Nindan (Rod) | ~5.94 m (≈ 12 cubits) | 1 nindan = 12 ammatu = 72 šu = 360 kush | Land surveying, long-distance construction | Copper alloy standard rods (Nippur), boundary markers | Civil 2000; Postgate 1992 | |
| Šu (Foot) | ~29.7 cm | 6 šu = 1 ammatu | Small-scale construction, crafts | Bricks, building remains | Civil 2000; Jacobsen 1960 | |
| Kush (Finger) | ~1.65 cm | 30 kush = 1 ammatu | Fine measurement for surveying and crafts | Clay rods with markings | Kramer 1981; Civil 2000 | |
| Beru (Double Rod) | ~11.9 m (≈ 2 nindan) | 2 nindan | Large distances (roads, canals) | Surveying tablets, boundary markers | Postgate 1992; Civil 2000 | |
| Volume | Sila | ~1 liter | Base unit | Grain, beer, oil rations | Clay measuring vessels, ration tablets | Kramer 1981; Civil 2000 |
| Ban / Ban-gur | ~10 sila | 10 sila = 1 ban | Daily rations, smaller grain measurements | Economic tablets, administrative records | Postgate 1992; Civil 2000 | |
| Gur | ~300 liters | 1 gur = 300 sila | Temple storage, taxation, bulk grain | Tablets from Ur, Girsu, Uruk | Kramer 1981; Jacobsen 1960 | |
| Nindan-cube | Derived from length units | – | Storage volume calculation, construction | Clay models, storage vessels | Civil 2000 | |
| Weight | Shekel | ~8.33 g | Base unit | Weighing silver, trade, taxation | Stone weights, balance stones | Kramer 1981; Civil 2000 |
| Mina | ~500 g | 60 shekels = 1 mina | Trade, taxation | Weights, balance stones | Postgate 1992 | |
| Talent | ~30 kg | 60 minas = 1 talent | Large-scale trade, metals, temple offerings | Stone weights, tablets | Civil 2000; Jacobsen 1960 | |
| Mathematics / Calculations | Arithmetic | – | – | Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division | Clay tablets, accounting texts | Robson 2008; Kramer 1981 |
| Geometry | – | – | Land surveying, canal construction, temple layout | Field measurement tablets, architectural plans | Postgate 1992; Civil 2000 | |
| Problem-solving / Algebraic | – | – | Workforce distribution, rations, contracts | Ur III tablets, word-problem tablets | Robson 2008 | |
| Sexagesimal system | Base-60 | – | Astronomy, timekeeping, fractions, accounting | Numerical tablets, astronomical records | Friberg 2005; Civil 2000 | |
| Astronomical / Calendar | – | – | Lunar calendars, irrigation scheduling, festivals | Observational tablets | Kramer 1981; Postgate 1992 |
Measurement Units (Incredible, at great length, we come to lengths?)
First of all, we have to insert here a remark related to the symbolism and abstract nature of measurement units as socio-cultural phenomena. Like any other form of social agreement, standardisation—whatever form of unification it represents—is an exclusive characteristic of the culture that possesses those standards. Further evolution of intersocial communication may lead to sameness (or perceived sameness) and to the migration and inheritance of measurement units from one culture to another...
Length, Volume And Weight Units
Sumerians developed a system of measurements for practical purposes like construction, land allocation, and trade. Archaeological evidence comes from cuneiform tablets recording transactions, construction, and surveying.
About the length, main derived from encrypted sources are: Cubit (nindan / šu-si) ≈ 49.5 cm, Foot (šu) ≈ 30 cm, Kush (finger) ≈ 1/30 nindan (Cubit as shown before).
We may not overpass the volume units, and they are: Sila (liter unit) ≈ 1 liter, Gur = 300 sila (used in grain, beer, and oil)
The weights are represented with: Shekel ≈ 8.33 grams, Mina = 60 shekels ≈ 500 g, Talent = 60 minas ≈ 30 kg
We suppose that any extensive discussions about the context of any phenomena linked to socio-cultural expression always trickle down, like a small creek falling into the lake of inner-societal tools of personal communication, interaction, and evolving social behaviour—gradually shaping and establishing the rules and norms formed through communication itself, will not have a place here. But, since measurement units belong precisely to that realm of norms and rules, a brief consideration remains justified.
This article is part of a long-read publication. [Go to the full version →]
This chapter devoted to two cultures, Babylonia and Persia, and here uncover why...
And here the place we should turning backward, to culture, already passed but under other angle...
