Information Processing Theory

The tenets of information processing have found increasing application within the scholastic milieu. It is anticipated that the theory's pertinence to education shall be further amplified through future research endeavours. Presented herein are three instructional applications that reflect the principles of information processing, to wit: advance organisers, the conditions of learning, and cognitive load.

Advance organisers are broad statements presented at the commencement of lessons that serve to connect new material with prior learning (Mayer, 1984). These organisers direct the attention of learners to salient concepts to be assimilated, underscore the relationships amongst ideas, and bridge new material to the extant knowledge of the students (Faw & Waller, 1976). Organisers may also manifest as maps, presented in conjunction with accompanying text (Verdi & Kulhavy, 2002). It is posited that the cognitive structures of learners are organised hierarchically, such that inclusive concepts subsume subordinate ones. Organisers furnish information at elevated levels within these hierarchies.

The conceptual underpinnings of organisers are derived from Ausubel’s (1963, 1968, 1977, 1978; Ausubel & Robinson, 1969) theory of meaningful reception learning. Learning is rendered meaningful when new material evinces a systematic relation to pertinent concepts within Long-Term Memory (LTM); that is, new material serves to expand, modify, or elaborate upon information already resident in memory. Meaningfulness is also contingent upon personal variables, such as age, experiential background, socio-economic status, and educational provenance. Prior experiences determine whether students find learning to be meaningful.

Ausubel advocated for deductive teaching methodologies: General ideas are imparted first, succeeded by specific points. This necessitates teachers to assist students in dissecting ideas into smaller, related points, and to forge links between new ideas and similar content already extant in memory. In information processing terms, the objectives of this model are to augment propositional networks within LTM through the accretion of knowledge, and to establish connections between disparate networks. Deductive teaching proves more efficacious with older students (Luiten, Ames, & Ackerson, 1980).

Advance organisers establish the framework for meaningful reception learning. Organisers may be either expository or comparative in nature. Expository organisers furnish students with novel knowledge requisite for the comprehension of the lesson. Such organisers encompass concept definitions and generalisations. Concept definitions delineate the concept, a superordinate concept, and the characteristics intrinsic to the concept. In presenting the concept of a 'warm-blooded animal,' an educator might define it (i.e., an animal whose internal body temperature remains relatively constant), relate it to superordinate concepts (the animal kingdom), and adduce its characteristics (birds, mammals). Generalisations are broad statements of general principles from which hypotheses or specific ideas are drawn. A generalisation apposite to the study of terrain would be: 'Less vegetation thrives at higher elevations.' Educators may present instances of generalisations and solicit students to conceive of others.

Comparative organisers introduce new material by drawing analogies with familiar material, thereby activating and linking networks within LTM. Should an educator be delivering a unit on the body’s circulatory system to students who have previously studied communication systems, the educator might draw parallels between the circulatory and communication systems, highlighting relevant concepts such as the source, medium, and target. For comparative organisers to be effective, students must possess a sound understanding of the material employed as the basis for the analogy. Learners must also readily perceive the analogy; difficulty in perceiving analogous relationships impedes learning.

Evidence suggests that organisers promote both learning and transfer (Ausubel, 1978; Faw & Waller, 1976; Mautone & Mayer, 2007). Maps constitute effective organisers and lend themselves well to infusion within lessons via technology (Verdi & Kulhavy, 2002). Mayer (1979) reported on research conducted with college students lacking prior computer programming experience. Students were provided with programming materials for study; one group was furnished with a conceptual model as an organiser, whilst the other group received the same materials without the model. The advance organiser group exhibited superior performance on post-test items necessitating transfer to items divergent from those discussed in the instructional material. Organisers may assist students in relating new material to a broader array of experiences, thereby facilitating transfer.

One of the most esteemed instructional theories, predicated upon cognitive principles, was formulated by Robert Gagné (1985). This theory doth encompass the conditions of learning, being the circumstances that prevail when learning taketh place (Ertmer, Driscoll, & Wager, 2003). Two steps are of critical importance. The first is to specify the type of learning outcome; Gagné identified five principal types (to be discussed anon). The second is to determine the events of learning, or factors that exert influence upon instruction.

Learning Outcomes

Gagné (1984) didst delineate five types of learning outcomes: intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes (vide Table 'Learning outcomes in Gagné’s theory.').

Intellectual skills do encompass rules, procedures, and concepts. They are forms of procedural knowledge, or productions. This species of knowledge is employed in speaking, writing, reading, solving mathematical problems, and applying scientific principles to various quandaries.

Verbal information, or declarative knowledge, is knowledge that a thing is thus. Verbal information doth involve facts or meaningfully connected prose, recalled verbatim (e.g., words to a poem or the “Star Spangled Banner”). Schemas are a form of verbal information.

Cognitive strategies are executive control processes. They include information processing skills such as attending to new information, deciding to rehearse information, elaborating, employing LTM retrieval strategies, and applying problem-solving strategies.

Motor skills are developed through gradual improvements in the quality (smoothness, timing) of movements attained through practice. Whereas intellectual skills can be acquired abruptly, motor skills develop gradually with continued, deliberate practice (Ericsson et al., 1993). Practice conditions do differ: Intellectual skills are practised with different examples; motor-skill practice doth involve repetition of the same muscular movements.

Attitudes are internal beliefs that influence actions and reflect characteristics such as generosity, honesty, and commitment to a healthful life. Teachers may arrange conditions for learning intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, and motor skills, but attitudes are learned indirectly through experiences and exposures to both animate and symbolic models (televised, videotaped).

Learning Events

The five types of learning outcomes do differ in their conditions. Internal conditions are prerequisite skills and cognitive processing requirements; external conditions are environmental stimuli that support the learner’s cognitive processes. One must specify as completely as possible both types of conditions when designing instruction.

Internal conditions are learners’ current capabilities stored in LTM as knowledge. Instructional cues from teachers and materials do activate relevant LTM knowledge (Gagné & Glaser, 1987). External conditions do differ as a function of the learning outcome and the internal conditions. To instruct students in a classroom rule, a teacher might inform them of the rule and visually display it. To instruct students in a strategy for checking their comprehension, a teacher might demonstrate the strategy and afford students practice and feedback on its effectiveness. Proficient readers are instructed differently from those with decoding problems. Each phase of instruction is subject to alteration as a function of learning outcomes and internal conditions.

Learning Hierarchies

Learning hierarchies are organised sets of intellectual skills. The highest element in a hierarchy is the target skill. To devise a hierarchy, one begins at the apex and inquires as to what skills the learner must perform prior to learning the target skill, or what skills are immediate prerequisites for the target skill. Then one asks the same question for each prerequisite skill, continuing down the hierarchy until one arrives at the skills the learner can perform presently (Dick & Carey, 1985; Merrill, 1987).

Hierarchies are not linear orderings of skills. One oft must apply two or more prerequisite skills to learn a higher-order skill, with neither of the prerequisites dependent upon the other. Nor are higher-order skills necessarily more difficult to learn than lower-order ones. Some prerequisites may be difficult to acquire; once learners have mastered the lower-order skills, learning a higher-order one may seem easier.

Phases of Learning

Instruction is a set of external events designed to facilitate internal learning processes. Table 'Gagné’s phases of learning' shows the nine phases of learning, grouped into three categories (Gagné, 1985).

Preparation for learning doth include introductory learning activities. During attending, learners do focus upon stimuli relevant to the material to be learned (audiovisuals, written materials, teacher-modelled behaviours). The learner’s expectancy doth orient the learner to the goal (learn a motor skill, learn to reduce fractions). During retrieval of relevant information from LTM, learners do activate the portions relevant to the topic studied (Gagné & Dick, 1983).

The principal phases of learning are acquisition and performance. Selective perception meaneth that the sensory registers recognise relevant stimulus features and transfer them to WM. Semantic encoding is the process whereby new knowledge is transferred to LTM. During retrieval and responding, learners retrieve new information from memory and make a response demonstrating learning. Reinforcement referreth to feedback that confirmeth the accuracy of a student’s response, and provideth corrective information as necessary.

Transfer of learning phases doth include cueing retrieval and generalisability. In cueing retrieval, learners receive cues signalling that previous knowledge is applicable in that situation. When solving word problems, for instance, a mathematics teacher might inform learners that their knowledge of right triangles is applicable. Generalisability is enhanced by affording learners the opportunity to practise skills with different content and under different circumstances (e.g., homework, spaced review sessions).

These nine phases are equally applicable for the five types of learning outcomes. Gagné and Briggs (1979) did specify types of instructional events that might accompany each phase (Table 'Instructional events accompanying learning phases (Gagné)'). Instructional events enhancing each phase do depend upon the type of outcome. Instruction proceedeth differently for intellectual skills than for verbal information.

One issue is that developing learning hierarchies can be difficult and time-consuming. The process requireth expertise in the content domain to determine the successive prerequisite skills—the scope and sequence of instruction. Even a seemingly simple skill may have a complex hierarchy if learners must master several prerequisites. For those skills with less well-defined structures (e.g., creative writing), developing a hierarchy may be difficult. Another issue is that the system alloweth for little learner control, because it prescribeth how learners should proceed. These issues notwithstanding, the theory doth offer solid suggestions for ways to apply information processing principles to the design of instruction (Ertmer et al., 2003).

The information processing system possesses a finite capacity for concurrent operations. Should an excessive number of stimuli present themselves simultaneously, observers are apt to overlook many, owing to the limitations of their attentional faculties. The capacity of Working Memory (WM) is similarly constrained. Given that information processing requires time and necessitates multiple cognitive processes, at any given juncture, only a circumscribed quantity of information may be retained within WM, transferred to Long-Term Memory (LTM), rehearsed, and so forth.

Cognitive Load Theory accounts for these processing restrictions in the design of instruction (DeLeeuw & Mayer, 2008; Schnotz & Kürschner, 2007; Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Pass, 1998). Cognitive load, denoting the demands placed upon the information processing system, may be categorised into two distinct forms. Intrinsic cognitive load is contingent upon the immutable characteristics of the information slated for acquisition, and is alleviated solely upon the learner's attainment of an efficacious cognitive schema for managing said information. Extrinsic cognitive load, conversely, stems from the manner in which the material is presented or the activities demanded of the learner (Bruning et al., 2004). By way of illustration, the acquisition of fundamental trigonometric relationships (e.g., sine, tangent) entails a certain cognitive load (intrinsic) inherent in the material, specifically the development of knowledge pertaining to the ratios of sides within a right triangle. The pedagogical approach employed exerts influence upon the extrinsic cognitive load. Instructors who furnish lucid presentations contribute to the minimisation of extrinsic cognitive load, whereas those whose explanations are deficient serve to amplify it.

In a parallel vein, Mayer and Moreno (2003) distinguished amongst three varieties of cognitive exigencies. Essential processing alludes to cognitive processes indispensable for comprehending the material (akin to intrinsic load). Incidental processing denotes processing extraneous to learning, yet potentially conducive to enhanced understanding. Representational holding signifies the temporary retention of information in memory whilst concurrently processing other information. Mayer and Moreno posited that learning is optimised when learners can concentrate their resources upon essential processing, with minimal or no allocation of resources to the aforementioned other types.

A cardinal principle maintains that instructional methodologies ought to diminish extraneous cognitive load, thereby enabling the devotion of extant resources towards learning (van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). The implementation of scaffolding should prove advantageous (van Merriënboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003). Initially, the scaffold aids learners in the acquisition of skills that would likely remain unattainable absent such assistance. The scaffolding serves to minimise the extrinsic load, thereby empowering learners to focus their resources upon the intrinsic demands of learning. As learners cultivate a schema for interacting with the information, the scaffold assistance may be gradually withdrawn.

A further recommendation involves the employment of simple-to-complex sequencing of material (van Merriënboer et al., 2003), consonant with Gagné’s theory. Complex learning is dissected into simpler constituents, which are acquired and subsequently integrated into a more extensive sequence. This procedure curtails cognitive load, thereby enabling learners to direct their cognitive resources towards the task at hand.

A third proposition advocates the utilisation of authentic tasks in instruction. Reigeluth’s (1999) elaboration theory, for instance, mandates the identification of conditions conducive to simplified task performance, followed by the commencement of instruction with a straightforward yet authentic case (e.g., one that might be encountered in the real world). Tasks possessing real-world significance contribute to the minimisation of extrinsic load, insofar as they obviate the need for learners to engage in superfluous processing to comprehend the context. It is, for instance, more instructive for students to ascertain the sine of the angle formed by connecting a point 40 feet distant from the school’s flagpole to the summit of the pole, than to grapple with comparable trigonometric problems in a textbook.

These considerations also commend the employment of collaborative learning. As cognitive load intensifies, learning by individuals diminishes in effectiveness and efficiency (Kirschner, Paas, & Kirschner, 2009). Given heightened task complexity, the partitioning of cognitive processing demands across individuals diminishes the cognitive load borne by individual students. These notions align harmoniously with the constructivist emphasis on peer collaboration.

Information processing theories concern themselves principally with attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval of knowledge. The study of information processing has been profoundly influenced by advancements in communications, computer technology, and the neurosciences.

Of historical influences germane to contemporary information processing viewpoints, Gestalt psychology and verbal learning are of particular note. Gestalt theorists emphasised the role of organisation in perception and learning. Researchers in verbal learning employed serial learning, free recall, and paired-associate tasks. A number of significant findings arose from verbal learning research. Free-recall studies demonstrated that organisation improves recall, and further, that individuals impose their own organisation when none is manifestly present. One of the major contributions was work in interference and forgetting.

A two-store (dual) memory model has found wide application. Information enters by way of the sensory registers. Although a register exists for each sense, the majority of research has concentrated upon the visual and auditory registers. At any given juncture, only a limited quantum of information may command attention. Attention may operate as a filter or as a general limitation upon the capacity of the human system. Inputs which are attended to are perceived through comparison with information resident in long-term memory (LTM).

Information enters short-term memory (STM), also known as working memory (WM), wherein it is retained through rehearsal and linked with related information in LTM. Information may be encoded for storage in LTM. Encoding is facilitated through organisation, elaboration, meaningfulness, and linkages with schemas. LTM is organised by content, and information is cross-referenced with related content. Control processes monitor and direct the flow of information through the system.

Alternative conceptualisations of memory consider it in terms of levels of processing, activation level, connectionism, and parallel distributed processing. Each of these viewpoints presents its own advantages and disadvantages, and some integration of these views may best characterise the nature of memory.

Attention and perception processes involve critical features, templates, and prototypes. Whereas WM is limited in capacity and duration, LTM appears to be of considerable extent. The fundamental unit of knowledge is the proposition, and propositions are organised in networks. Types of knowledge encompass declarative, procedural, and conditional forms. Substantial portions of procedural knowledge may be organised in production systems. Networks are further linked in a connectionist fashion through spreading activation to enhance cross-referencing and transfer. Retrieval of knowledge is contingent upon its being accessed in LTM. Failure to retrieve may arise from decay of information or interference. Information may be most effectively retrieved with cues present during encoding (encoding specificity).

An area that serves to illustrate the storage and retrieval of information in LTM is language comprehension, which involves perception, parsing, and utilisation. Communications are frequently incomplete; speakers omit information which they presume listeners to possess. Effective language comprehension necessitates that listeners command adequate propositional knowledge and schemas and understand the context. To integrate information into memory, listeners identify given information, access it in LTM, and relate new information thereto. Language comprehension is a central aspect of literacy and is strongly correlated with academic success, particularly in subjects that demand extensive reading.

Although considerable evidence suggests that information is stored in memory in verbal form (meanings), evidence also exists for the storage of images. Images are analog representations: they bear similarity, though not identity, to their referents. Dual-code theory postulates that the imaginal system primarily stores concrete objects and events, while the verbal system stores more abstract information expressed in language. Conversely, images may be reconstructed in WM from verbal codes stored in LTM. Developmental evidence indicates that children are more inclined than adults to represent knowledge as images, but imaginal representation can be cultivated in individuals of any age.

Whilst much early research on information processing was of a fundamental nature and conducted within experimental laboratories, researchers are increasingly undertaking research in applied settings and, in particular, upon the learning of academic content. Three instructional applications which reflect information processing principles encompass advance organisers, the conditions of learning, and cognitive load.