Educational Psychology: Study of Learning

Introduction to the Study of Learning

The present section is intended to prepare the scholar for a profound study of learning by establishing a foundational framework and providing the requisite historical context through which to survey modern doctrines. Upon the conclusion of this section, the student shall be expected to achieve the following: Delineate the nature of learning and distinguish between instances of acquired and innate phenomena. Discriminate between the schools of Rationalism and Empiricism, expounding upon the fundamental tenets of each. Evaluate the contributions of Wundt, Ebbinghaus, the Structuralists, and the Functionalists in the establishment of Psychology as a formal science. Characterise the primary attributes of diverse research paradigms. Examine the core features of various methodologies for the assessment of learning. Enunciate those instructional principles which are common to numerous theories of learning. Elucidate the manner in which pedagogical theory and educational practice reciprocally complement and refine one another. Expound upon the distinctions between Behavioural and Cognitive theories regarding diverse matters within the study of learning.

Neuroscience of Learning

The present section addresses the neuroscience of learning, defined as the science pertaining to the relation of the nervous system to learning and behaviour. Although neuroscience does not, in itself, constitute a theory of learning, a familiarity with its principles shall provide the scholar with a more robust foundation for understanding the sections concerning conditioning and cognitive learning which follow. The primary focus of this section is the central nervous system (CNS), which comprises the brain and the spinal cord. The greater part of the discourse concerns the functions of the brain rather than those of the spinal cord. The autonomic nervous system (ANS), which regulates involuntary physiological actions—such as respiration and glandular secretions—is mentioned where relevant to the inquiry. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Delineate the neural organisation and the specific functions of axons, dendrites, and glial cells. Examine the primary functions associated with the major regions of the brain. Identify those cerebral functions that are highly localised within the right and left hemispheres. Evaluate the various technologies employed in contemporary brain research. Expound upon the process of learning from a neuroscientific perspective, to include the mechanisms of consolidation and the operation of memory networks. Discuss the manner in which neural connections are formed and interact during the acquisition and subsequent use of language. Analyse the critical changes and developmental periods of the brain as a function of both maturation and experience. Elucidate the role of the brain in the regulation of motivation and the emotions. Consider the instructional implications of neurological research for the practices of teaching and learning.

Behaviorism

The present section encompasses the study of Behaviourism as expressed through the diverse theories of conditioning pertaining to the acquisition of knowledge. The distinguishing hallmark of such conditioning doctrines is not merely their concern with manifest behaviour—for indeed, all psychological theories must address this—but rather their insistence upon explaining the learning process solely in terms of environmental occurrences. Whilst the proponents of these theories do not necessarily deny the existence of mental phenomena, they contend that such internal states are not requisite for a complete explanation of the learning process. In the introductory illustration, the character Leo espouses a position rooted in the principles of conditioning. The most renowned of these doctrines is B. F. Skinner’s theory of Operant Conditioning. Before embarking upon an examination of this modern work, several historical foundations within the tradition of conditioning shall be presented to provide the necessary backdrop; specifically, Thorndike’s Connectionism, Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning, and Guthrie’s Contiguous Conditioning. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Expound upon the manner in which behaviours are acquired according to the tenets of Connectionism. Evaluate the significant contributions made by Thorndike to contemporary educational practice. Delineate the processes by which responses become conditioned, extinguished, and generalised, in accordance with the laws of Classical Conditioning. Characterise the mechanism whereby a particular emotional response may become conditioned to a hitherto neutral object. Elucidate, through the application of contiguous conditioning principles, how discrete movements are synthesised into a singular act. Describe Skinner’s three-term contingency model of operant conditioning and provide illustrative examples thereof. Define and exemplify the primary concepts of operant conditioning: notably positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, generalisation, discrimination, shaping, and the Premack Principle. Provide a concise survey of the Behaviourist model of self-regulation. Examine the principal applications of operant principles to the field of education, including: behavioural objectives, the allocation of learning time, mastery learning, programmed instruction, and the use of contingency contracts.

Social Cognitive Theory

The present section discusses the conceptual framework of Social Cognitive Theory, together with its underlying assumptions regarding the nature of human learning and behaviour. A significant portion of this section is devoted to the examination of modeling processes. The various influences upon learning and performance are delineated, and motivational factors are examined with particular emphasis upon the critical role played by self-efficacy. Furthermore, several instructional applications reflecting the principles of social cognitive learning are provided. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Delineate and exemplify the process of triadic reciprocal causality. Discriminate between enactive and vicarious learning, and between the acquisition of knowledge and the manifestation of performance. Expound upon the role of self-regulation within the context of social cognitive theory. Define and provide illustrations of the three primary functions of modeling. Examine the processes inherent in observational learning. Elucidate the various factors that influence observational learning and performance. Discuss the motivational properties associated with goals, outcome expectations, and values. Define self-efficacy and explain its causes and effects within educational settings. Analyse how the features of models—such as peers, multiple models, and coping models—affect self-efficacy and the learning process. Describe several educational applications that reflect the theoretical principles of social cognition.

Information Processing Theory

The present section initially discusses the fundamental assumptions of information processing and provides an overview of a prototypical two-store memory model. The bulk of this section is devoted to the explication of the component processes of attention, perception, short-term (working) memory, and long-term memory, encompassing storage, retrieval, and the phenomenon of forgetting. Relevant historical material pertaining to verbal learning and Gestalt psychology is addressed, together with alternative perspectives involving levels of processing and memory activation. Furthermore, the comprehension of language is examined, and the section concludes by addressing mental imagery and its various instructional applications. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Delineate the major components of information processing: notably attention, perception, short-term (working) memory, and long-term memory. Discriminate between different perspectives on attention and explain the manner in which attention influences the learning process. Compare and contrast the Gestalt and information processing theories of perception. Examine the primary forms of research within the field of verbal learning. Differentiate between short- and long-term memory upon the basis of capacity, duration, and their respective component processes. Define propositions and elucidate their role in the encoding and retrieval of information within the long-term memory. Expound upon the principal factors that influence the processes of encoding, retrieval, and forgetting. Discuss the essential components of language comprehension. Explain the dual-code theory and apply its principles to the study of mental imagery. Identify the information processing principles inherent in instructional applications, specifically those involving advance organisers, the conditions of learning, and cognitive load.

Constructivism

The present section commences by providing a comprehensive overview of Constructivism, to include a delineation of its fundamental assumptions and the various classes of constructivist doctrine. The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky are subsequently delineated, with particular emphasis upon those facets pertaining to the acquisition of knowledge. The critical roles of social processes and private discourse are examined, followed by a treatment of motivation from the constructivist perspective. The section terminates with an examination of constructivist learning environments and the pedagogical applications that reflect these principles. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Examine the primary assumptions and the diverse types of constructivism. Summarise the principal processes within Piaget’s theory that pertain to learning, and consider the implications for pedagogical practice. Elucidate the essential principles of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and the implications for instruction within the zone of proximal development. Expound upon the function of private discourse for the purposes of learning and self-regulation. Discuss the manner in which scholastic structure and the TARGET variables influence pupil motivation. Characterise the formation of the preceptor's expectations and the manner in which they may influence interactions with the pupils. Enumerate the essential features of constructivist learning environments and the primary components of the APA learner-centred principles. Describe the manner in which discovery learning, inquiry instruction, peer-assisted learning, discourse, and debate may be structured to reflect constructivist principles. Elucidate how the preceptor may become more reflective and thereby augment the achievements of the pupil.

Cognitive Learning Processes

The present section extends this perspective to the operation of primary cognitive processes during learning. Following a discourse upon skill acquisition, the subjects of conditional knowledge and metacognition are addressed, being of central importance to learning. Subsequent passages address concept learning, the resolution of problems, transfer, technology and instruction, and instructional applications. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Discriminate between general and specific skills, and examine the manner in which they work together in the attainment of competence. Characterise the novice-to-expert research methodology. Understand why conditional knowledge is of importance for learning, and examine the variables affecting metacognition. Distinguish the properties of concepts, and elucidate the models of concept learning. Examine historical views of problem solving and the role of general strategies (heuristics). Describe problem solving from the perspective of information processing. Differentiate historical views of transfer, and provide a cognitive explanation for the transfer of knowledge, skills, and strategies. Examine the key learning features of computer-based learning environments and distance learning. Elucidate learning from worked examples and the development of writing and mathematical skills.

Motivation

The present section commences with an examination of diverse historical perspectives pertaining to motivation; the remainder of this section addresses modern cognitive doctrines. The primary motivational processes are elucidated and linked to the acquisition of knowledge. The subjects addressed include achievement motivation theory, attribution theory, social cognitive theory, goal theory, perceptions of control, the self-concept, and intrinsic motivation. The section terminates with a consideration of several pedagogical applications. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Examine concisely several significant historical theories of motivation: notably drive, conditioning, cognitive consistency, and the humanistic perspective. Delineate a model of motivated learning and characterise its primary components. Expound upon the principal features within a contemporary model of achievement motivation. Discuss the causal dimensions within Weiner’s attribution theory and the influences they exert within achievement situations. Elucidate the manner in which the social cognitive processes of goals and expectations are formed and interact to influence motivation. Discriminate between learning (process) and performance (product) goals, and explain the manner in which they may influence motivation and the learning process. Explain the potential effects of perceived control upon learning, behaviour, and the emotions. Define self-concept and elucidate the primary factors that influence its development. Distinguish intrinsic from extrinsic motivation and the conditions under which rewards may augment or diminish intrinsic motivation. Examine pedagogical applications involving achievement motivation, attributions, and goal orientations.

Self-Regulation

The focus of the present section is the study of self-regulation. Self-regulation (or self-regulated learning) pertains to those processes whereby scholars methodically direct their thoughts, affections, and actions toward the attainment of their established goals (Zimmerman, 2000). Inquiry into self-regulation during the learning process originated as a derivative of psychological investigations into the development of self-control amongst adults and children (Zimmerman, 2001). A significant portion of early research regarding self-regulation was undertaken within clinical settings, wherein researchers instructed participants to modify such maladaptive behaviours as aggression, addictions, sexual disorders, interpersonal conflicts, and behavioural difficulties within the domestic and scholastic environments (Mace & West, 1986). Self-regulation has subsequently broadened to encompass academic learning and scholastic achievement (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Upon the conclusion of the present section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Delineate and provide illustrations of the essential behavioural subordinate processes of self-regulation: notably self-monitoring, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement. Define and exemplify the social-cognitive subprocesses of self-regulation, including self-observation, self-judgement, and self-reaction. Examine the diverse processes operative during the social cognitive phases of self-regulation: specifically forethought, performance or volitional control, and self-reflection. Expound upon self-regulation from the perspective of information processing, and provide examples of those self-regulatory strategies employed by proficient scholars. Discuss self-regulation from a constructivist viewpoint, to include the role exerted by the pupils' implicit theories. Analyse the manner in which various motivational variables—such as self-efficacy, goals, and values—relate to the discipline of self-regulation. Formulate a scheme which pupils might employ to augment their academic studies. Elucidate the manner in which the principles of self-regulation may further achievement within the fields of writing and mathematics.

Development

The present section commences with a survey of the historical and philosophical foundations pertaining to the scientific study of development, encompassing the significant contributions of the Child Study Movement. Diverse theoretical perspectives concerning development are elucidated, with particular emphasis directed toward cognitive and constructivist viewpoints. Bruner’s doctrine of cognitive growth is addressed, together with modern developmental inquiries into cognitive processes. The associated subjects of developmentally appropriate instruction and transitions within the schooling system are examined. Distinct passages are provided regarding the influences of home and family upon development, developmental alterations in motivation, and various pedagogical applications. The related subjects of brain development (Section 2), Piaget’s theory (Section 6), and Vygotsky’s theory (Section 6) are treated within other sections. Upon the conclusion of this section, the scholar shall be expected to achieve the following: Characterise the primary influences leading to the scientific study of human development. Enunciate certain of the significant contributions and deficiencies of the Child Study Movement. Expound upon developmental matters relevant to the acquisition of knowledge and the principal perspectives regarding human development. Compare and contrast the structural and functional accounts of development. Delineate the modes of knowledge representation proposed by Bruner and the significance of the 'spiral curriculum'. Examine certain major alterations in cognitive information processing that occur during the course of development. Elucidate the nature of developmentally appropriate instruction and the reasons why transitions in schooling exert an influence upon learning and teaching. Discuss the relation of socioeconomic status, the home environment, parental involvement, and the influence of the media to development and the learning process. Describe developmental changes in motivation and their subsequent implications for learning. Explain certain instructional implications arising from the literature on learning styles, Case’s instructional model, and research pertaining to interactions between preceptor and pupil.

Related Publications

The present section encompasses various subjects pertaining to the methodologies of educational processes, religion, and ethics within pedagogical frameworks, aesthetics and social paternalism within societal collectives, and further related matters.

Encyclopaedia of Educational Psychology