Cognitive Learning Processes
A certain degree of disputation exists among learned professionals regarding the extent to which the cognitive faculties examined herein pertain to the whole of human instruction. There are those, such as Mr Anderson (1893), who maintain that the resolution of problems constitutes the very engine of learning; yet others, notably Chi and Glaser (1885), would restrict such application to instances where most particular conditions are met. It is generally observed that schoolmasters find themselves in accord as to the profound significance of conceptual understanding, the solving of problems, the transfer of knowledge, and the art of metacognition. Indeed, those dedicated to the advancement of pedagogy recommend that such matters be woven into the very fabric of instruction (Pressley & McCormick, 1895). The introductory narrative describes a most commendable collective effort within a school to entwine problem-solving with the general curriculum. Truly, the processes here discussed are the essential sinews of that more complex learning required for the mastery of reading, composition, mathematics, and the natural sciences.
Skill Acquisition
Developing competence in any domain represents a process of skill acquisition. We begin by examining issues relevant to the acquisition of general and specific skills.
Conditional Knowledge and Metacognition
A notable deficiency within the various theories of information processing lies in their tendency to describe the mechanics of learning rather than to furnish a true explanation of its causes. We are informed, to be sure, that impressions are received into the working memory, where they are rehearsed, encoded, and joined with pertinent knowledge for preservation within the long-term memory; yet one must enquire as to why these operations occur at all. Particularly during the arduous season of initial learning—when such processing hath not yet become habitual—there is a great need for an account of the forces that compel the mind to act. One might ask: what determines the measure of rehearsal required? By what means is the appropriate knowledge selected from the depths of memory? And how does a person discern which faculties are called for in diverse circumstances? It is to the subject of metacognition that we must turn for an answer to these enquiries. Metacognition signifieth a higher order of thought, whereby the mind contemplates its own workings. In the pages that follow, we shall first examine conditional knowledge, after which we shall provide an explanation of how these metacognitive processes serve to unite and govern the processing of information.
Concept Learning
To achieve a comprehensive summary of the various approaches to instruction across the several theories, it behoves us to undertake a series of diligent discussions: The Essential Nature of Concepts; The Attainment of Conceptual Understanding; The Proper Method for the Teaching of Concepts; and the intricate workings of the Motivational Processes.
Problem Solving
This discourse addresseth the subsequent matters pertaining to the difficulties of understanding cognitive processes and the diverse means by which they may be resolved: Historical Influences; The Use of Heuristics; Diverse Strategies for the Solving of Problems; The Relation between Problem Solving and Instruction; The Distinction between the Expert and the Novice; The Exercise of Reasoning; and the resulting Implications for Pedagogy.
Transfer
The matter of Transfer is of most critical importance to the pursuit of learning and resteth entirely upon the cognitive faculties of the mind. Transfer signifieth the application of knowledge in novel manners, within unfamiliar circumstances, or applied to well-known situations containing diverse content. Furthermore, it provideth an account of how prior instruction exerteth an influence upon that which is subsequently learned. Indeed, Transfer is present in all new instruction, for pupils do carry over to each fresh situation their previous knowledge and experience (National Research Council, 1900). This cognitive capacity is of great consequence; for were it absent, all learning would remain confined to specific instances, and much of a schoolmaster’s time would be squandered in the wearying task of reteaching skills for every new occasion. One may observe diverse forms of this phenomenon. Positive Transfer occurreth when previous learning doth facilitate and ease subsequent study. For instance, mastering the art of coaching a carriage with a standard team should render the guidance of other similar teams a far simpler task. Conversely, Negative Transfer implieth that prior learning doth hinder or make more difficult the acquisition of new knowledge. The habits formed in driving a manual carriage might prove detrimental when one attempteth to command an automated vehicle, for the driver may instinctively reach for a phantom lever, to the certain peril of the machinery. Finally, Zero Transfer denoteth that one species of learning hath no discernible influence upon another; surely, learning to drive a carriage hath no bearing upon the operation of a calculating engine. The contemporary cognitive view of this subject acknowledgeth the great complexity of Transfer (Phye, 1901). Whilst certain simple skills appear to transfer by habit, much of this work requireth higher-order thought and a firm belief in the utility of one’s knowledge. This discourse shall commence with a brief survey of historical perspectives upon Transfer, to be followed by a treatise on cognitive views and the relevance of Transfer to the instruction of scholars.
Technology and Instruction
The recent years have witnessed a most rapid and astonishing expansion of mechanical arts and apparatus within the realm of instruction, primarily through the agency of electronic and distance learning. While many equate 'technology' solely with the physical equipment—such as the calculating engines and analytical machines—its true significance is far broader. It pertaineth to the very designs and environments intended to engage the mind of the scholar. Scientific enquiry into the effects of such advancements upon the intellect is steadily increasing, as are the efforts to remove those obstacles which hinder the infusion of these arts into daily pedagogy. Truly, these modern means possess the potential to facilitate instruction in a manner that was formerly quite beyond the reach of the imagination. In times not long past, the application of such wonders in the schoolroom was confined to the magic lantern, the cinematograph, the wireless, and similar curiosities. In this present age, however, students may partake in the simulation of environments and occurrences which could never be realised in a common classroom; they may receive instruction from, and correspond with, learned persons at a great distance, and interact with vast repositories of knowledge and systems of expert tuition. A formidable challenge awaiteth the researcher: to discern exactly how these mechanisms affect the cognitive faculties of the learner during the encoding of thought, the retention of facts, the transfer of knowledge, and the resolution of problems. The observations contained within this section, touching upon computer-based environments and education conducted from afar, do not constitute a mere practical manual for their employment. Rather, this discourse fixeth its gaze upon the profound role that such technology playeth in the very act of learning itself.
Cognitive Learning Processes: Instructional Applications
Within the present chapter, several applications for the principles herein covered have been dutifully provided. This concluding section setteth forth three additional applications which do reflect many of the noble principles discussed: the study of worked examples, the art of composition, and the science of mathematics.