Critical Issues for Learning Theories (Study of Learning)

Most professionals do, in principle, accept the definition of learning as propounded at the outset of this chapter. However, upon moving beyond said definition, a diminution in consensus is observed regarding sundry issues pertinent to learning. This section shall delineate certain of these issues, and sources of contention amongst differing theoretical perspectives. These matters shall be addressed in subsequent chapters as various theories of learning are subjected to scrutiny. Prior to this undertaking, however, some elucidation of behavioural and cognitive theories shall be provided, so as to furnish a background against which the theories of learning presented in this text may be framed, and a more perspicacious understanding of the concepts undergirding the principles of human learning cultivated.

Behavioural theories conceive of learning as a change in the rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behaviour or response, arising primarily as a function of environmental determinants (vide Chapter 3). These theories contend that learning entails the formation of associations between stimuli and responses. In Skinner’s (1953) estimation, a response to a stimulus is rendered more likely to occur in futuro, contingent upon the consequences of prior responding: reinforcing consequences augmenting the probability of recurrence, whilst punishing consequences diminish it.

Behaviourism exerted a considerable influence upon psychology in the first half of the twentieth century, and the preponderance of older theories of learning are behavioural in nature. These theories proffer explanations of learning in terms of observable phenomena. Behavioural theorists maintain that explanations for learning need not encompass internal events (e.g., thoughts, beliefs, feelings), not on the grounds that these processes are non-existent (for they assuredly are—even behavioural theorists must needs reflect upon their theories!), but rather because the causes of learning are observable environmental occurrences.

Critical Issues in the Study of Learning.

• How doth learning occur?
• What is the role of memory in learning?
• What is the role of motivation in learning?
• How doth transfer of learning occur?
• Which processes are implicated in self-regulation?
• What are the implications for instruction?

Conversely, cognitive theories accentuate the acquisition of knowledge and skills, the formation of mental structures, and the processing of information and beliefs. The theories expounded in Chapters 4 through 6 are cognitive, as are the principles considered in later chapters. From a cognitive vantage, learning is an internal mental phenomenon, inferred from the utterances and actions of individuals. A central theme is the mental processing of information: its construction, acquisition, organisation, coding, rehearsal, storage in memory, and retrieval or non-retrieval from memory. Albeit cognitive theorists emphasise the import of mental processes in learning, they do not concur as to which processes are of paramount significance.

These twain conceptualisations of learning possess profound implications for educational practice. Behavioural theories imply that instructors ought to arrange the environment such that students may respond appropriately to stimuli. Cognitive theories underscore the importance of rendering learning meaningful and taking into consideration the learners’ perceptions of themselves and their learning environments. Instructors must needs deliberate upon the manner in which instruction affects students’ thinking during the learning process.

Behavioural and cognitive theories, whilst concordant in their acknowledgement of the influence of disparities amongst learners and their environments upon the process of learning, diverge in the relative significance ascribed to these determinants. Behavioural theories lay emphasis upon the rôle of the environment—specifically, the arrangement and presentation of stimuli and the reinforcement of responses. These theories assign less import to the differences between learners than do their cognitive counterparts. Two learner variables considered within the behavioural framework are reinforcement history (the extent to which an individual hath been previously reinforced for analogous behaviours) and developmental status (the current capabilities of the individual). Thus, cognitive impediments shall hinder the acquisition of complex skills, and physical disabilities may preclude the attainment of motor behaviours.

Cognitive theories recognise the influence of environmental conditions upon learning. The explanations and demonstrations of concepts provided by instructors serve as environmental inputs for students. The practice of skills by students, when combined with corrective feedback as warranted, doth foster learning. Cognitive theories, however, contend that instructional factors alone are insufficient to fully account for the learning achieved by students (Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986). Of critical import is the manner in which students engage with information—their attention, rehearsal, transformation, coding, storage, and retrieval processes. The methods by which learners process information determine the what, when, and how of their learning, as well as the ultimate utility of that learning.

Cognitive theories underscore the significance of the learner's thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values. Learners who harbour doubts regarding their capacity to learn may fail to attend adequately to the task at hand or may approach it with a want of earnestness, thereby impeding their learning. Such cognitive queries as, “Why is this of import?” or “How well am I progressing?” can exert influence upon the learning process. Instructors must needs consider the thought processes of their students when preparing their lessons.

Diverse theories appertaining to the acquisition of knowledge do diverge in their estimation of the role of memory. Certain behavioural doctrines conceive of memory in terms of neurological connections, established as a consequence of behaviours being associated with external stimuli. More commonly, theorists discourse upon the formation of habitual modes of responding, with scant regard for the manner in which these behavioural patterns are retained in memory and activated by external events. The majority of behavioural theories posit that forgetting is occasioned by a dearth of responding over time.

Cognitive theories, conversely, assign a prominent function to memory. Information processing theories equate learning with encoding, or the storing of knowledge within memory in an organised and meaningful fashion. Information is retrieved from memory in response to relevant cues, which serve to activate the appropriate memory structures. Forgetting, in this context, is construed as the inability to retrieve information from memory, a condition brought about by interference, memory loss, or inadequate cues to access the selfsame information. Memory, therefore, is critical for learning, and the manner in which information is learned determines how it is stored within and retrieved from memory.

One's perspective on the role of memory has profound implications for pedagogical practice. Behavioural theories propose that periodic, spaced reviews serve to maintain the strength of responses within the learners' repertoires. Cognitive theories, on the other hand, place greater emphasis on the presentation of material in such a manner that learners may organise it, relate it to their existing understanding, and remember it in a meaningful fashion.

Motivation doth exert an influence upon all phases of both learning and performance. Albeit a discrete chapter be dedicated unto the matter of motivation, its pertinence to the several theories of learning is likewise discoursed upon in divers other chapters.

Theories behavioural do delineate motivation as an augmented rate or probability of the occurrence of behaviour, such arising from the repetition of behaviours in response to stimuli, or as a consequence of reinforcement. Skinner’s (1968) operant conditioning theory doth contain no novel principles wherewith to account for motivation: Motivated behaviour is augmented, or continued responding is engendered, by reinforcement. Students do evince motivated behaviour by reason that they aforetime were reinforced for such, and by reason that efficacious reinforcers are presently at hand. Theories behavioural draw no distinction betwixt motivation and learning, but rather employ the selfsame principles to expound all behaviour.

In contradistinction, theories cognitive do regard motivation and learning as related, albeit not identical (Schunk, 1991). One may be motivated, yet not learn; one may learn, without being motivated so to do. Theories cognitive do lay emphasis upon the capacity of motivation to assist in directing attention, and to influence the manner in which information is processed. Albeit reinforcement may motivate students, its effects upon behaviour are not automatic, but rather depend upon the interpretation thereof by the students. When reinforcement history (that for which one hath been reinforced in times past) doth conflict with present beliefs, persons are more like to act based upon their beliefs (Bandura, 1986; Brewer, 1974). Research hath identified numerous cognitive processes that do motivate students; for example, goals, social comparisons, self-efficacy, values, and interests. Teachers are behooved to consider the motivational effects of instructional practices and classroom factors, so as to ensure that students remain motivated to learn.

Transference doth allude to the application of knowledge and skills in novel manners, encompassing new subject matter, or within circumstances disparate from those wherein they were initially acquired (vide Chapter 7). Transference doth also elucidate the consequence of antecedent learning upon subsequent learning—be it to facilitate, impede, or exert no influence thereupon. Transference is of paramount significance, for lacking it, all learning would be circumstantially particular. Transference doth reside at the very core of our educational framework (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999).

Behavioural theories do assert that transference is contingent upon identical constituents or analogous attributes (stimuli) betwixt situations. Behaviours are transferred (or generalised) when the erstwhile and nascent situations partake of common elements. Thus, a scholar who doth learn that 6 x 3 = 18 ought to be capable of executing this multiplication within diverse settings (school, domicile) and when the selfsame numerals materialise in a parallel problem configuration (e.g., 36 x 23 = ?).

Cognitive theories do posit that transference occurreth when learners comprehend how to employ knowledge within divergent contexts. The manner in which information is stored in memory is of import. The utilities of knowledge are stored alongside the knowledge itself or can be readily accessed from another memory storage locus. It is not imperative that situations share common elements.

Instructional implications of these perspectives do diverge. From a behavioural viewpoint, pedagogues ought to augment the similitude betwixt situations and underscore common constituents. Cognitive theories supplement these considerations by accentuating that students’ perceptions of the value of learning are of critical import. Teachers may address these perceptions by incorporating into lessons information on how knowledge may be utilised in divergent contexts, by imparting unto students rules and procedures to employ in situations to ascertain what knowledge shall be requisite, and by furnishing students with feedback on how skills and strategies may benefit them in diverse manners.

Self-regulation (or self-regulated learning) alludes to the process whereby learners systematically direct their thoughts, sentiments, and actions toward the attainment of their objectives (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001; Vide Chapter 9). Researchers from diverse theoretical traditions posit that self-regulation encompasses possessing a purpose or objective, employing goal-directed actions, and monitoring strategies and actions, adjusting them to ensure success. Theories diverge in the mechanisms postulated to underlie pupils’ utilisation of cognitive and behavioural processes to regulate their activities.

Behavioural researchers posit that self-regulation entails establishing one’s own contingencies of reinforcement; that is, the stimuli to which one responds, and the consequences of one’s responses. No novel processes are requisite to account for self-regulated behaviour. Behavioural researchers focus upon overt responses of learners: self-monitoring, self-instruction, self-reinforcement.

Cognitive researchers lay emphasis upon mental activities such as attention, rehearsal, utilisation of learning strategies, and comprehension monitoring. These theorists likewise accentuate motivational beliefs regarding self-efficacy, outcomes, and perceived value of learning (Schunk, 2001). A pivotal element is choice: for self-regulation to transpire, learners must possess some choice in their motives or methods for learning, time expended learning, criterion level of learning, the setting wherein learning occurs, and the social conditions in effect (Zimmerman, 1994, 1998, 2000). When learners possess scant choices, their behaviours are largely externally regulated rather than self-regulated.

Theories endeavour to elucidate diverse modalities of learning, albeit differing in their capacity to do so (Bruner, 1985). Behavioural theories lay stress upon the formation of associations betwixt stimuli and responses, achieved through the selective reinforcement of correct responding. It would seem that behavioural theories are best suited to explicating the simpler forms of learning, involving associations such as multiplication tables, the meanings of foreign language words, and the capital cities of states.

Cognitive theories proffer explanations of learning predicated upon factors such as information processing, memory networks, and the perceptions and interpretations of students with regard to classroom elements (teachers, peers, materials, organisation). Cognitive theories appear more apt for the elucidation of complex forms of learning, such as the solving of mathematical word problems, the drawing of inferences from text, and the composition of essays.

Nevertheless, commonalities frequently subsist amongst disparate forms of learning (Bruner, 1985). Learning to read is fundamentally distinct from learning to play the violin, yet both profit from attention, exertion, and persistence. Learning to write term papers and learning to throw the javelin may not, at first blush, appear analogous; however, both are promoted by goal setting, self-monitoring of progress, corrective feedback from pedagogues and coaches, and sentiments of intrinsic motivation.

Effective pedagogy necessitates that we ascertain the most efficacious theoretical perspectives for the varieties of learning with which we are concerned and draw upon the implications of those perspectives for instruction. When reinforced practice is of moment to learning, then teachers ought to schedule it. When learning problem-solving strategies is cardinal, then we ought to study the implications of information processing theory. A continuing challenge for research is to specify similarities and differences amongst types of learning, and to identify effective instructional approaches for each.