Neuroscience of Learning: Instructional Applications

In recent years, a marked augmentation of interest hath been observed concerning neurophysiological investigations into cerebral development and its operations. Many an educator doth regard brain research with a keen interest, in expectation that it might offer suggestions for rendering educational materials and modes of instruction more agreeable to the manner in which children process information and acquire knowledge.

Alas, the annals of behavioral science reveal a disjunction betwixt brain research and theories of learning. The study of the brain and behavior is by no means novel; one might recall Hebb’s (1949) neurophysiological theory, as previously discussed within this chapter. Learning theorists, irrespective of their particular persuasion, whilst acknowledging the import of brain research, have oft been inclined to formulate and test their theories independently of the findings derived therefrom.

This circumstance is manifestly undergoing alteration. Educational researchers are increasingly of the belief that a comprehension of cerebral processes affords supplementary insights into the essence of learning and development (Byrnes & Fox, 1998). Indeed, certain cognitive explanations for learning (e.g., activation of information within memory, transference of information from Working Memory to Long-Term Memory) do involve processes of the Central Nervous System, and cerebral psychology hath commenced to explicate the operations implicated in learning and the retention thereof. Findings emerging from brain research do, in truth, lend support to numerous outcomes obtained in research studies pertaining to learning and memory (Byrnes, 2001; Byrnes & Fox, 1998).

It is regrettable that certain educators have overgeneralized the outcomes of brain research, leading to the formulation of unwarranted instructional recommendations. Albeit that cerebral functions are localized to some degree, there exists abundant evidence to suggest that tasks necessitate the activity of both hemispheres, and that their differences are more relative than absolute (Byrnes & Fox, 1998). The identification of students as being either “right-brained” or “left-brained” is usually predicated upon informal observations, rather than upon measures and instruments that are scientifically valid and reliable. Consequently, certain educational methods are being employed with students not on account of their proven efficacy in promoting learning, but rather due to their presumed alignment with the students’ supposed cerebral predilections.

Educational issues relevant to brain research.

• Role of early education
• Complexity of cognitive processes
• Diagnosis of specific difficulties
• Multifaceted nature of learning

Enquiries into the cerebrum, and the central nervous system in its generality, give rise to manifold issues of pertinence to education. With regard to developmental alterations, one such issue concerns the pivotal role assumed by early education. The circumstance that the crania of juveniles exhibit a superabundance of neural matter intimates that a greater quantity of neurones is not invariably advantageous. There subsists, in all likelihood, an optimal state of functionality wherein the cerebrum possesses the 'right' complement of neurones and synapses—neither excessively nor inadequately numerous. Physical, emotional, and cognitive maturation entails the cerebrum's approximation towards its optimal state. Atypical development—culminating in developmental incapacities—may transpire in consequence of the aforementioned paring-down process not unfolding in a normative fashion.

This process of molding and shaping within the cerebrum insinuates that the early years of childhood education are of critical import. The developmental phases of infancy and the pre-school years may lay the groundwork for the acquisition of proficiencies requisite for success within the scholastic milieu (Byrnes & Fox, 1998). Early intervention programmes (e.g., Head Start) have evinced the capacity to ameliorate juveniles' preparedness for, and attainment within, the educational sphere, and numerous polities have instituted programmes of pre-school education. Cerebral research vindicates this emphasis upon early education.

A second consideration concerns the notion that instructional practices and experiential learning must be premeditated with a view to accommodating the complexities inherent in cognitive processes such as attention and memory. Neuroscientific research has demonstrated that attention is not a unitary process, but rather encompasses a multitude of components (e.g., alerting to an alteration in the present condition, localising the origin of the said alteration). Memory is similarly differentiated into distinct types, such as declarative and procedural memory. The inference is that educators ought not to presume that a particular pedagogical technique 'engenders students' attention' or 'aids them in remembering'. Rather, we must adopt a more specific posture concerning the facets of attention to which the instruction shall appeal, and the precise type of memory to which it is addressed.

A third issue pivots upon the remediation of students' learning impediments. Cerebral research suggests that the key to rectifying deficiencies in a specific discipline lies in ascertaining the precise aspects of the discipline wherein the learner encounters difficulty, and subsequently addressing these aspects in a direct and targeted fashion. Mathematics, for instance, encompasses numerous subcomponents, such as the comprehension of written numerals and symbols, the retrieval of factual information, and the capacity to inscribe numerals. Reading encompasses orthographic, phonological, semantic, and syntactic processes. To assert that an individual is a deficient reader does not serve to diagnose the locus of the difficulty. Only meticulously refined assessments can facilitate such identification, whereafter a corrective procedure may be implemented to address the specific deficiency. A generalised reading programme that addresses all facets of reading (e.g., word identification, word meanings) is analogous to a broad-spectrum antibiotic administered to one who is unwell; it may not constitute the optimal therapeutic intervention. It would seem educationally advantageous to furnish corrective instruction in those domains wherein correction is most acutely required. For example, cognitive strategy instruction addressing juveniles' weaknesses may be conjoined with conventional reading instruction (Katzir & Paré-Blagoev, 2006).

The final consideration concerns the complexity inherent in theories of learning. Cerebral research has demonstrated that multifaceted theories of learning appear to capture the actual state of affairs with greater fidelity than do parsimonious models. A considerable degree of redundancy subsists within cerebral functions, which accounts for the commonplace discovery that when an area of the cerebrum known to be associated with a given function is traumatised, the function may not wholly disappear (which is another reason why the 'right-brain' and 'left-brain' distinctions lack substantial credibility). Over time, theories of learning have progressively acquired greater complexity. Classical and operant conditioning theories are markedly simpler than social cognitive theory, cognitive information processing theory, and constructivist theory. These latter theories afford a more veridical reflection of cerebral reality. This suggests that educators ought to embrace the complexity of scholastic learning environments and investigate avenues by which the myriad aspects of these environments may be coordinated so as to ameliorate student learning.

This chapter doth suggest certain particular educational practices that facilitate learning and which are substantiated by brain research. Byrnes (2001) did contend that brain research is relevant to psychology and education to the extent that it doth assist psychologists and educators in developing a more perspicuous understanding of learning, development, and motivation; that is, it is relevant when it doth serve to substantiate existing predictions of learning theories.

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning is an effective learning method. Problem-based learning doth engage students in learning and doth serve to motivate them. When students work in groups, they may also improve their cooperative learning skills. Problem-based learning doth require students to think creatively and bring their knowledge to bear in unique ways. It is especially useful for projects that have no one correct solution.

Educational practices substantiated by brain research.

• Problem-based learning
• Simulations and role-playing
• Active discussions
• Graphics
• Positive climate

The effectiveness of problem-based learning is substantiated by brain research. With its multiple connections, the human brain is wired to solve problems (Jensen, 2005). Students who collaborate to solve problems become aware of new ways that knowledge can be used and combined, which forms new synaptic connections. Further, problem-based learning is apt to appeal to students’ motivation and engender emotional involvement, which also can create more extensive neural networks.

Simulations and Role-Playing

Simulations and role-playing have many of the same benefifits as doth problem-based learning. Simulations might occur via computers, in the regular class, or in special settings (e.g., museums). Role-playing is a form of modelling where students observe others. Both simulations and role-playing provide students with learning opportunities that are not ordinarily available. These methods have motivational benefifits and command student attention. They allow students to engage with the material actively and invest themselves emotionally. Collectively, these benefifits help to foster learning.

Active Discussions

Many topics lend themselves well to student discussions. Students who are part of a discussion are forced to participate; they cannot be passive observers. This increased level of cognitive and emotional engagement leads to better learning. Further, by participating in discussions, students are exposed to new ideas and integrate these with their current conceptions. This cognitive activity helps to build synaptic connections and new ways of using information.

Graphics

The human body is structured such that we take in more information visually than through all other senses (Wolfe, 2001). Visual displays help to foster attention, learning, and retention. The collective findings from learning and brain research support the benefifits of graphics. Teachers who use graphics in their teaching and have students employ graphics (e.g., overheads, PowerPoint© presentations, demonstrations, drawings, concept maps, graphic organisers) capitalise on visual information processing and are apt to improve learning.

Positive Climate

We saw in the section on emotions that learning proceeds better when students have a positive attitude and feel emotionally secure. Conversely, learning is not facilitated when students are stressful or anxious, such as when they fear volunteering answers because the teacher becomes angry if their answers are incorrect. Brain research substantiates the positive effect that emotional involvement can have on learning and the building of synaptic connections. Teachers who create a positive classroom climate will find that behaviour problems are minimised and that students become more invested in learning.

The neuroscientific study of learning constitutes the examination of the nervous system's relation to both learning and conduct. Whilst neuroscientific investigations have been pursued for a considerable duration within medicine and the sciences, they have recently garnered the attention of educators due to the instructional ramifications arising from research discoveries. Neuroscientific research addresses the central nervous system (CNS), encompassing the brain and spinal cord, which governs volitional behaviour, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which regulates involuntary actions.

The CNS is comprised of billions of cells within the brain and spinal cord. These cells are primarily of two types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons facilitate the transmission and reception of information across muscles and organs. Each neuron is constituted of a cell body, numerous short dendrites, and a single axon. Dendrites are responsible for receiving information from other cells, whilst axons transmit messages to cells. The myelin sheath encases axons, thereby expediting the conveyance of signals. Axons terminate in branching structures (synapses) that connect with the ends of dendrites. Chemical neurotransmitters situated at the termini of axons activate or inhibit reactions within the contracted dendrites. This process enables the rapid transmission of signals across neural and bodily structures. Glial cells underpin the function of neurons by eliminating superfluous chemicals and deceased brain cells. Furthermore, glial cells establish the myelin sheath.

The mature human brain (cerebrum) possesses a weight of approximately three pounds and a size comparable to that of a cantaloupe. Its external texture exhibits a wrinkled appearance. The cerebral cortex, a thin layer representing the wrinkled gray matter of the brain, envelops the brain. These wrinkles augment the capacity of the cortex to accommodate a greater number of neurons and neural connections. The cortex is bisected into two hemispheres (left and right), each of which is further partitioned into four lobes (occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal). With certain exceptions, the brain's structure exhibits rough symmetry. The cortex serves as the principal area implicated in learning, memory, and the processing of sensory information. Other key regions of the brain encompass the brain stem, reticular formation, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, corpus callosum, Broca's area, and Wernicke's area.

The brain's left hemisphere typically governs the right visual field, and conversely. A significant proportion of brain functions exhibit localisation to varying degrees. Analytical thinking appears to be centralised within the left hemisphere, whereas spatial, auditory, emotional, and artistic processing predominantly occurs within the right hemisphere. Concurrently, numerous brain regions collaborate to process information and regulate actions. Substantial crossover transpires between the two hemispheres, facilitated by bundles of fibres, the most prominent of which is the corpus callosum.

The collaborative function of multiple brain regions is readily apparent in language acquisition and usage. The left side of the brain's cerebral cortex is pivotal to reading. Discrete brain regions are associated with orthographic, phonological, semantic, and syntactic processing, all of which are requisite for reading. Wernicke's area, situated within the left hemisphere, governs speech comprehension and the appropriate application of syntax during speech. Wernicke's area functions in close coordination with Broca's area in the left frontal lobe, which is indispensable for speech. However, the right hemisphere is critical for the interpretation of context and, consequently, the meaning of much speech.

Various technologies are employed to conduct brain research. These encompass X-rays, CAT scans, EEGs, PET scans, MRIs, and fMRIs. The domain of brain research is undergoing rapid evolution, and novel technologies of augmented sophistication shall continue to be developed.

From a neuroscientific vantage, learning constitutes the process of constructing and modifying neural (synaptic) connections and networks. Sensory inputs undergo processing within the sensory memories portions of the brain; those that are retained are transferred to WM, which appears to reside in multiple parts of the brain but primarily within the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe. Subsequently, information may be transferred to LTM. Different regions of the brain are implicated in LTM, contingent upon the type of information (e.g., declarative, procedural). With repeated presentations of stimuli or information, neural networks undergo reinforcement, thereby expediting neural responses. The process of stabilising and fortifying synaptic connections is termed consolidation, and through consolidation, the physical structure and functional organisation of the brain is modified.

Influential factors in brain development encompass genetics, environmental stimulation, nutrition, steroids, and teratogens. During prenatal development, the brain exhibits growth in size, structure, and the number of neurons, glial cells, and synapses. The brain undergoes rapid development in infants; young children possess complex neural connections. As children experience the attrition of brain synapses, those that are retained depend, in part, upon the activities in which they engage. Critical periods appear to exist during the initial years of life for the development of language, emotions, sensory-motor functions, auditory capabilities, and vision. Early brain development benefits from enriched environmental experiences and emotional bonding with parents and caregivers. Significant changes also occur in teenagers' brains with respect to size, structure, and the number and organisation of neurons.

Two neural correlates of motivation entail rewards and motivational states. The brain appears to possess a system for processing rewards and generates its own rewards in the form of opiates, which engender a natural elevation of mood. The brain may exhibit a predisposition towards experiencing and sustaining pleasurable outcomes, and the pleasure network may be activated by the anticipation of reward. Motivational states are complex neural connections that encompass emotions, cognitions, and behaviours. The sine qua non of education lies in maintaining motivation for learning within an optimal range.

The operation of emotions within the CNS is intricate. Emotional reactions comprise stages, such as orienting to the event, integrating the event, selecting a response, and sustaining the emotional context. Brain-linked emotional activity may diverge for primary and culturally based emotions. Emotions may facilitate learning, as they direct attention and influence learning and memory. Emotional involvement is desirable for learning; however, when emotions attain excessive intensity, cognitive learning is impeded.

Findings derived from brain research corroborate numerous results obtained in cognitive research studies pertaining to learning and memory. However, it is imperative to refrain from overgeneralising brain research findings through the categorisation of students as either right- or left-brained. Most learning tasks necessitate activity from both hemispheres, and the distinctions between brain functions are relative rather than absolute.

Brain research suggests that early education is critical, instruction should account for children's cognitive complexities, assessment of specific problems is requisite for planning appropriate interventions, and complex theories of learning capture the brain's operation more effectively than simpler theories. Some efficacious brain-based educational practices encompass problem-based learning, simulations and role-playing, active discussions, graphics, and a positive climate.