Information Processing Theory (Self-Regulation)

Theories pertaining to information processing have undergone an evolution from their initial conceptualisations to encompass cognitive and motivational self-regulatory mechanisms. This discourse shall present an information processing paradigm of self-regulation, incorporating these constituent elements, and shall further elaborate upon scholarly investigations and practical applications concerning learning strategies—a salient characteristic of self-regulation, viewed through the prism of information processing.

Information processing theories posit that learning is akin to the encoding of information within long-term memory (LTM). Learners activate pertinent portions of LTM and correlate novel knowledge with extant information residing in working memory (WM). Organised and meaningful information proves more readily integrated with prior knowledge, thus augmenting its likelihood of being remembered.

Self-regulation, broadly speaking, corresponds to metacognitive awareness or metacognition (Gitomer & Glaser, 1987), wherein individuals monitor, direct, and regulate their actions towards predetermined goals (Paris & Paris, 2001). This awareness encompasses knowledge of the task at hand (its content, timing, and method), as well as self-knowledge pertaining to personal capabilities, interests, and attitudes. Self-regulation mandates that learners possess a robust knowledge base encompassing task demands, personal attributes, and strategies conducive to task completion.

Metacognitive awareness extends to procedural knowledge or productions, which govern the learning of material by monitoring one’s level of comprehension, determining when an alternative approach is necessitated, and assessing preparedness for examination. Self-regulatory (metacognitive) activities constitute types of control processes (Chapter 5) enacted under the learner's volition, facilitating the processing and conveyance of information through the cognitive system.

The fundamental (superordinate) unit of self-regulation may be conceived as a problem-solving production system, wherein the objective is to attain the designated goal, and monitoring serves to ascertain the learner's progress. This system juxtaposes the prevailing situation against a pre-established standard, endeavouring to reduce any observed discrepancies.

An early conceptualisation of this system is found in Miller, Galanter, and Pribham’s (1960) Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) model. The initial test phase serves to compare the present circumstances against a defined standard. Should congruence prevail, no further action is requisite. However, in cases of incongruence, control is transferred to the operate function, thereby instigating behavioural adjustments to resolve the disparity. A novel state of affairs is perceived and subsequently compared to the established standard during the second test phase. Assuming alignment, the model is exited. Conversely, should discrepancies persist, further behavioural modifications and comparisons are warranted.

By way of illustration, consider Lisa, who, whilst perusing her economics text, pauses periodically to summarise the material she has assimilated. She retrieves information from LTM pertaining to her reading and juxtaposes it against her internal standard for an adequate summary. This standard may itself be a production characterised by rules (e.g., precision, comprehensive coverage of all topics, accuracy), developed through prior summarisation experiences. Upon confirming that her summary aligns with her standard, she proceeds with her reading. However, should discrepancies arise, Lisa evaluates the source of the issue (perhaps in her understanding of the second paragraph) and executes a corrective strategy (rereading the second paragraph).

Winne and Hadwin (1998, 2008; Winne, 2001) have advanced an information processing model of self-regulated learning, highly pertinent to the field of education (Greene & Azevedo, 2007). This model comprises three obligatory phases (definition of task, goals and plans, studying tactics) and one optional phase (adaptations).

During the initial phase, learners process information concerning the conditions that delineate the task, thereby achieving a clear definition thereof (Winne, 2001). Two primary sources of information are pertinent. Task conditions encompass information about the task, interpreted by learners based on the external environment (e.g., the teacher’s instructions for an assignment). Cognitive conditions, conversely, are retrieved from long-term memory, encompassing information regarding past performance, as well as motivational variables (e.g., perceived competence, attributions). In the subsequent phase, learners determine a goal and formulate a plan for its attainment, which shall incorporate relevant learning strategies. As these strategies are implemented, the learner transitions into the third phase (studying tactics). The fourth phase entails adaptations to the plan, contingent upon evaluations of its efficacy. This phase is optional, as adaptation is unnecessary if the original plan proves successful.

Within each phase, information processing transpires, yielding information products or novel information. Information processes act upon existing information, characterised by the acronym SMART: searching, monitoring, assembling, rehearsing, translating. Engaging with a task necessitates the utilisation of a schema or script, each comprising five potential slots, encapsulated by the acronym COPES: conditions, operations, products, evaluations, standards. Figuratively speaking, these constitute the elements a student 'copes with' to facilitate learning (Winne, 2001). Information processing outcomes are assessed against established standards, and these evaluations (e.g., on target, excessively high) serve as the foundation for introducing new conditions to bear upon the student’s learning activities.

The model’s significance for education stems principally from its development and application with learning content and its incorporation of motivational variables. These motivational variables are integrated with cognitive variables to ascertain the utility of a particular self-regulatory schema or script. The model represents a considerable advancement over traditional and contemporary cognitive information processing models, which prioritised cognitive components (Chapter 5). Extensive research corroborates the assertion that motivational variables wield considerable influence during self-regulated learning (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).

Whilst alternative information processing models of self-regulation exist (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1998), they concur in their emphasis on learning strategies, which shall be addressed forthwith.

Learning strategies are cognitive schemata directed towards the successful execution of tasks (Pressley et al., 1990; Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). Such strategies encompass activities such as the selection and organisation of information, the rehearsal of material intended for erudition, relating new material to extant knowledge within the memory, and the amplification of the material's meaningfulness. Furthermore, strategies include techniques to cultivate and sustain an affirmative learning milieu—for example, methods to surmount test anxiety, augment self-efficacy, appreciate the intrinsic worth of learning, and foster positive outcome expectations and attitudes (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). The application of strategies is intrinsic to self-regulated learning, affording learners enhanced dominion over information processing (Winne, 2001). As evinced in the opening vignette, Miss Connie underscores the salience of Miss Kim employing learning strategies in her scholastic pursuits.

Learning strategies are conducive to encoding across all its phases. Ergo, learners initially attend to pertinent task information, transferring it from the sensory register to the Working Memory (WM). Learners also activate pertinent knowledge stored in the Long-Term Memory (LTM). Within the WM, learners forge connections (links) between novel information and prior knowledge, integrating these links into LTM networks.

The accompanying table delineates the successive stages in the formulation and implementation of a learning strategy. Initially, learners analyse an activity or situation in terms of the activity’s objective, facets of the situation germane to that objective, salient personal characteristics, and potentially efficacious self-regulated learning methods. Learners may then formulate a strategy or plan along the following lines: “Given this task to be accomplished at this time and place according to these criteria and given these personal characteristics, I should employ these procedures to accomplish the objective” (paraphrased from Snowman, 1986). Subsequently, learners implement the methods, monitor their progression toward the objective, and modify the strategy should the methods prove inadequate. The implementation of these methods is guided by metacognitive knowledge, which entails an understanding of the necessity of executing the methods, their underlying rationale, and the appropriate timing and manner of their execution.

Self-regulated learning methods are specific procedures or techniques integrated within strategies to accomplish objectives. The categories of learning methods presented in Table 9.4 are interdependent (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). For instance, procedures that elaborate upon information often concurrently rehearse and organise it. Methods that organise information may alleviate stress associated with learning and facilitate coping with anxiety. Methods are not uniformly appropriate for all types of tasks. Rehearsal may be the favoured method when simple facts are to be memorised, whereas organisation is more apposite for comprehension. The ensuing sections shall discuss diverse methods.

Rehearsal

Repetition *verbatim*, underlining, and precis-writing constitute forms of rehearsal. The reiteration of information to oneself—whether aloud, subvocally (in a whisper), or privately—is a propitious method for tasks demanding rote memorisation. To exemplify, in the acquisition of the names of the fifty state capitals, one might enunciate the name of each state followed by that of its capital. Rehearsal may also assist learners in memorising verses of a song or poem, and in learning English renderings of foreign locutions.

Rehearsal that merely repeats information in a mechanical manner does not forge connections with existing knowledge, nor does it arrange information in a hierarchical or other ordered fashion. Consequently, long-term memory (LTM) does not store rehearsed information in a meaningful sense, and retrieval after a period may prove arduous.

Rehearsal may prove useful in complex learning, provided it transcends the mere repetition of information. Underlining (or highlighting) is one efficacious rehearsal technique. This practice, favoured by scholars in secondary and tertiary education, enhances learning when employed judiciously (Snowman, 1986). Excessive underlining diminishes its efficacy, as less important matter is marked alongside that of greater significance. The material so designated ought to represent the points most pertinent to the aims of instruction.

In precis-writing—another common rehearsal method—students render the principal concepts expressed in the text into their own phrasing, be it orally or in writing. As with underlining, precis-writing loses its potency if overburdened with excessive detail (Snowman, 1986). Limiting the length of students' summaries compels them to discern the cardinal ideas.

The reciprocal teaching method, as elucidated by Palincsar and Brown (1984), incorporates summarisation as a vehicle for promoting reading comprehension. Reciprocal teaching is predicated upon Vygotsky's (1978) zone of proximal development (ZPD), which denotes the extent a student may learn under the correct pedagogical conditions. Instruction commences with the teacher performing the activity, followed by a collaborative effort between student and teacher. Students gradually accept augmented responsibility, instructing one another.

Palincsar and Brown instructed children to summarise, question, clarify, and predict. Children periodically summarised their readings, posed questions akin to those a teacher might ask concerning main ideas, elucidated ambiguous passages, and anticipated subsequent events. It should be noted that these procedures are not exclusive to reading comprehension instruction; they represent sound problem-solving methodologies applicable, with effective results, across a variety of disciplines (e.g., the sciences, mathematics, social studies).

Elaboration

Elaboration procedures (embracing imagery, mnemonics, interrogation, and note-taking) serve to augment information by appending elements that render learning more significant. Imagery, for instance, introduces a mental depiction. Consider the definition of a turnip (“a biennial plant of the mustard family with edible hairy leaves and a roundish, light-coloured fleshy root used as a vegetable”). One might commit this definition to memory through rote rehearsal or elaborate upon it by scrutinising an image of a turnip and cultivating a mental image to establish a connection with the definition.

Mnemonics are esteemed elaboration methods (Weinstein, 1978). A mnemonic renders information meaningful by correlating it with existing knowledge. Mnemonics assume various forms (vide Table 'Learning Methods'). Acronyms consolidate the initial letters of the material intended for memorisation into a meaningful word. “HOMES” serves as an acronym for the five Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior); “ROY G. BIV” denotes the colours of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet). Sentence mnemonics employ the initial letters of the material to be learned as the initial letters of words within a sentence. For instance, “Every Good Boy Does Fine” constitutes a sentence mnemonic for the notes on the treble clef staff (E, G, B, D, F), and “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas” represents the order of the planets from the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto).

It is additionally feasible to amalgamate material to be memorised into a paragraph or narrative story. This mnemonic technique may prove beneficial when confronted with the task of memorising lengthy lists (e.g., the capitals of the fifty states). Student-generated acronyms, sentences, and narratives are as efficacious as those furnished by others (Snowman, 1986).

The pegword method necessitates that learners initially commit to memory a collection of objects rhyming with integer names; for example, one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree, four-door, five-hive, six-sticks, seven-heaven, eight-gate, nine-wine, ten-hen. Subsequently, the learner generates an image of each item to be learned and associates it with the corresponding object image. Thus, should Joan be required to procure certain items at the grocer’s (butter, milk, apples), she might envision a buttered bun, milk within a shoe, and apples burgeoning on a tree. To recollect the shopping list, she recalls the rhyming scheme and its paired associates. The successful application of this technique presupposes that learners first master the rhyming scheme.

To employ the method of loci, learners envisage a familiar setting, such as a room within their abode, whereupon they embark upon a mental perambulation about the room, pausing at each prominent object. Each new item to be learned is mentally paired with an object within the room. Assuming that the room contains (in sequential order) a table, a lamp, and a television, and utilising the preceding grocery list example, Joan might initially envision butter upon the table, a milky-coloured lamp, and apples atop the television. To recall the grocery list, she mentally retraces her path about the room and recalls the appropriate object at each juncture.

Atkinson (1975; Atkinson & Raugh, 1975) formulated the keyword method for the acquisition of foreign language vocabulary. For instance, pato (pronounced “pot-o”) is a Spanish term signifying “duck.” Learners initially conceive of an English word (pot) that bears resemblance to the foreign word (pato). Subsequently, they associate an image of a pot with the English translation of the foreign word (“duck”); for example, a duck adorned with a pot upon its head. When learners encounter pato, they recollect the image of a duck bearing a pot upon its head. While the keyword method has been employed efficaciously with various forms of academic content (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney, 1982), its success with young children frequently necessitates furnishing them with both the keyword and the illustration incorporating the keyword and its English translation.

Mnemonic techniques incorporate several established learning principles, including rehearsal and the correlation of new information with prior knowledge. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the majority of students possess preferred memorisation techniques, many of which employ mnemonics. Experiments comparing the recall of students instructed in a mnemonic with that of students not provided with a memory technique generally indicate that learning accrues benefit from mnemonic instruction (Weinstein, 1978). Students must comprehend the application of the technique, which generally entails instruction.

Elaboration methods are also efficacious with intricate learning tasks. For example, interrogation necessitates that learners pause periodically whilst perusing text and pose questions to themselves. To address higher-order learning outcomes, learners might inquire, “How does this information relate to the subject matter discussed by the author in the preceding section?” (synthesis) or, “How might this concept be applied within a scholastic environment?” (application).

One might assume that interrogation ought to enhance comprehension; however, research has not yielded robust substantiation for this correlation (Snowman, 1986). To prove effective, questions must reflect the nature of the desired learning outcomes. Interrogation will not facilitate comprehension if questions address low-level, factual knowledge. Regrettably, the majority of research studies have employed relatively brief passages, comprising fewer than 1,500 words. With more mature students, interrogation is most beneficial with lengthier passages. Among elementary children, re-reading or reviewing (rehearsing) material proves equally efficacious. This may stem from children’s limited knowledge regarding the construction of sound questions.

Note-taking, another elaboration technique, mandates that learners construct meaningful paraphrases of the most salient concepts articulated within a text. Note-taking bears resemblance to summarisation, save that the former is not constrained to immediately available information. Whilst taking notes, students might integrate new textual material with other information in personally meaningful ways. To prove effective, notes must not replicate verbatim textual information. Rote copying of material constitutes a form of rehearsal and may enhance recall, but it does not represent elaboration. The intention of note-taking is to elaborate (integrate and apply) information. Students generally require instruction in the proper method of note-taking for this technique to prove efficacious. Note-taking functions most optimally when the notes encompass content highly pertinent to the learning objectives.

Organisation

Organisation techniques encompass mnemonics, grouping, outlining, and mapping. Mnemonics serve to elaborate upon information and arrange it in a meaningful fashion. Acronyms, for instance, organise information into a word of significance. Information may be organised by grouping it prior to employing rehearsal or mnemonics. Should students be engaged in learning the nomenclature of mammals, they might initially group the names into common families (apes, felines, etc.) and subsequently rehearse or utilise a mnemonic. Organisation imposed by learners constitutes an efficacious aid to recall; learners initially recall the organisational scheme and thereafter the individual components (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986).

Techniques of organisation prove advantageous when dealing with complex material. A prevalent technique is outlining, which necessitates that learners establish headings. Outlining enhances comprehension, yet, as with other methods of learning, students typically require instruction in the proper construction of an outline. One method of instructing outlining is to employ a text featuring headings set apart from the main body or appearing in the margins, coupled with embedded (boldface or italic) headings interspersed throughout the text. Another approach involves having students identify topic sentences and points pertinent to each sentence. Merely instructing students to outline a passage does not facilitate learning if students do not comprehend the procedure.

Mapping is an organisational technique that enhances learners’ awareness of textual structure. Mapping involves identifying significant ideas and specifying their interrelationship. Concepts or ideas are identified, categorised, and related to one another. The precise nature of the map varies in accordance with the content and types of relationships to be specified. The ensuing steps are useful in instructing mapping:

• Discuss the manner in which different sentences within a paragraph relate to one another by delineating the categories into which sentences will fit: main idea, example, comparison/contrast, temporal relationship, and inference.
• Model the application of this categorisation using sample paragraphs.
• Provide students with guided practice in categorising sentences and elucidating the rationale behind their choices.
• Have students engage in independent practice with paragraphs. Once students acquire these fundamental skills, more complex textual material may be employed (multiple paragraphs, short sections of stories or chapters), with new categories introduced as necessary (e.g., transition; McNeil, 1987).
• A map is conceptually akin to a propositional network, as mapping involves the creation of a hierarchy, with main ideas, or superordinate concepts, listed at the apex, followed by supporting points, examples, and subordinate concepts. Branching off from the main hierarchy are lines to related points, such as might be used if a concept is being contrasted with related concepts.

Research doth indicate differential effectiveness for mapping as a means of improving comprehension (Snowman, 1986). The skill to discern some relationships is learned easily (main idea-example), but the skill to discern others is more difficult to acquire (causeeffect). Students often have difficulty linking ideas between sections or paragraphs. In teaching students to construct maps, having them first map each section or paragraph separately and then link the maps is helpful. Mapping is especially effective with students who experience difficulty integrating ideas (Holley, Dansereau, McDonald, Garland, & Collins, 1979).

Comprehension Monitoring

Comprehension monitoring assisteth learners in ascertaining whether they be duly applying declarative and procedural knowledge to the matter to be learned, in evaluating their understanding of the said matter, in deciding whether their strategy proveth effective or whether a superior strategy be required, and in apprehending why the utilisation of such a strategy shall improve learning. The instruction of students in comprehension monitoring constitutes a cardinal component of strategy-instruction programmes (Baker & Brown, 1984; Borkowski & Cavanaugh, 1979; Paris et al., 1983). Self-questioning, re-reading, verification of consistencies, and paraphrasing are all processes of monitoring. In utilising a hypermedia learning environment with middle- and high-school students, Greene and Azevedo (2009) discovered that monitoring activities (e.g., self-questioning) didst significantly enhance students’ understanding of intricate scientific subjects.

Some textual matter doth periodically furnish students with questions concerning the content thereof. Students who respond to these questions as they peruse the material are engaged in self-questioning. When questions are not provided, students must needs generate their own. As a method of training students to pose questions, instructors may direct students to pause periodically whilst reading and to inquire of themselves a series of questions (i.e., who, what, when, where, why, how).

Re-reading is oft accomplished in conjunction with self-questioning; when students cannot answer questions concerning the text or otherwise harbour doubts as to their understanding, these cues prompt them to re-read. Verification for consistencies encompasseth determining whether the text be internally consistent, that is, whether parts of the text contradict others and whether conclusions that be drawn follow from what hath been discussed. A belief that textual matter be inconsistent serveth as a cue for re-reading to ascertain whether the author be inconsistent or whether the reader hath failed to comprehend the content. Students who periodically pause and paraphrase matter are verifying their level of understanding. Being capable of paraphrasing is a cue that re-reading is unnecessary (Paris & Oka, 1986).

A serviceable method to impart comprehension monitoring is Meichenbaum’s (1986) self-instructional training (Chapter 4). Cognitive modelling doth portray a systematic approach to comprehension along with statements to self-check understanding and to undertake corrective action as necessary. Whilst presenting comprehension instruction to remedial readers, a teacher might verbalise the following (Meichenbaum & Asarnow, 1979):

Verily, I have learned three grand matters to bear in mind ere I read a story and whilst I read it. One is to inquire of myself what the main idea of the story be. What is the story about? A second is to learn important details of the story as I proceed. The order of the main events or their sequence is an especially important detail. A third is to know how the characters feel and wherefore. So, obtain the main idea. Observe sequences. And learn how the characters feel and wherefore.

Students learn to verbalise such statements and internalise them by gradually fading them to a covert level. To remind learners what to contemplate, teachers might display key ideas on a poster board (e.g., obtain the main idea, observe sequences, learn how the characters feel and wherefore). Winsler and Naglieri (2003) discovered that between the ages of 5 and 17, children’s verbal problem-solving strategies moved from overt (aloud) to partially covert (whispers) to fully covert (silent), which supports the progression in self-instructional training.

Affective Techniques

Affective learning techniques serve to cultivate a propitious psychological atmosphere conducive to scholarly pursuits (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). These methods aid in the mitigation of anxiety, the development of constructive convictions (self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and attitudes), the setting of objectives, the establishment of a regular time and locale for study, and the minimisation of distractions (through the imposition of rules such as abstaining from telephonic discourse and the viewing of televisual broadcasts).

Affective techniques assist learners in the focusing and maintaining of attention upon salient task aspects, the efficacious management of time, and the minimisation of anxiety. Self-verbalisation aids in maintaining students’ attention upon the academic task at hand. At the commencement of an academic activity, students might reflect thus: “This may prove arduous. I must needs pay close attention to the instructor.” Should they observe their attention waning, they might then reflect: “Cease dwelling upon _____. I must needs concentrate upon the pronouncements of the instructor.”

Goal setting constitutes an effective stratagem for time management. Learners who establish overarching learning goals, subdivide them into short-term objectives, and periodically evaluate their progress are thereby self-regulating their academic performances. The conviction that progress is being made fortifies students’ self-efficacy for continued learning (Schunk, 1995).

Anxiety concerning examinations, grades, and potential failure impedes the learning process. Students who ruminate upon potential failure squander time and reinforce doubts concerning their capabilities. Anxiety-reduction programmes employ systematic desensitisation, modelling, and guided self-talk. Models articulate positive achievement beliefs (e.g., “I am confident that with diligent effort, I shall perform well upon the examination”) in lieu of dysfunctional beliefs (e.g., “I am incapable of passing the examination”). Coping models, who initially exhibit anxiety but employ efficacious self-regulated learning methods and persist until achieving improved performance, are important therapeutic agents of change (Schunk, 1987).

For students encountering difficulties in test-taking, a specific programme designed to impart test-taking skills may prove advantageous (Kirkland & Hollandsworth, 1980). Such programmes typically instruct students to subdivide the examination, establish time constraints for each segment, and avoid protracted engagement with any single question. To overcome negative thoughts during examination, students are instructed in relaxation techniques and methods for refocusing attention upon test items. Test performance and beliefs exert reciprocal influences. The experience of some measure of success engenders a sense of self-efficacy, leading to more productive study habits and enhanced performance.

Effectiveness of Strategy Instruction

The research literature pertaining to strategy instruction hath expanded dramatically in recent years (Corno, 2008). Hattie, Biggs, and Purdie (1996) conducted an extensive review of interventions aimed at the betterment of student learning. They concluded that most interventions were effective, and they obtained evidence for near transfer. When transfer is a goal, it is imperative that students comprehend the conditions under which the strategy is effective. The best self-regulated strategy instruction programmes are those that are integrated with academic content and implemented in classrooms that support students' self-regulated learning (Butler, 1998a, 1998b; Perry, 1998; Winne & Hadwin, 2008).

As with other aspects of learning, strategy instruction is most effective when the methods are meaningful to students and they perceive them as valuable to use. The research literature contains many examples of strategy-instruction programmes with immediate effects that did not endure over time or transfer beyond the learning context (Borkowski & Cavanaugh, 1979; Borkowski, Johnston, & Reid, 1987). Strategy instruction programmes with children often have participants who demonstrate production deficiencies (i.e., they fail to use a strategy that is available to them) and utilisation deficiencies (i.e., they use the strategy but it does not enhance their performances; Schwenck, Bjorklund, & Schneider, 2007).

Pressley and his colleagues (Harris & Pressley, 1991; Pressley, Harris, & Marks, 1992; Pressley et al., 1990) contended that several factors should be taken into account when designing and implementing strategy-instruction programmes. Strategies should not be foisted on students; teaching strategies in the hope that students will realise their benefits and use them is preferable.

Pressley & McCormick, 1995, p. 515:

Good strategy instruction sends the message that students can control how they do academically, with much gained by creatively applying the cognitive strategies that are taught to them. Good strategy instruction encourages student reflection, permitting powerful tools for reflective “meaning-getting” from texts, creation of reflective stances via writing, and reflective decision making about whether and how to use strategies they know to tackle new situations.

Strategy instruction is likely to be most effective when the constructivist nature of the acquisition and use of strategies is stressed (Goldin-Meadow et al., 1993; Paris & Paris, 2001). A key point is that students are motivated to construct understanding from inputs they receive. Good teaching complements this process because it provides rich inputs and the context for constructions to take place. In the opening vignette, Connie hopes that eventually Kim will adapt strategies to be most effective for her.

Pressley et al. (1992) recommended several steps to follow in strategy instruction. Introducing a few strategies at a time doth not overload students, and the strategies can be coalesced into a large package to show how they interrelate. The advantage of providing distributed practice on diverse tasks is to facilitate transfer and maintenance. The importance of teachers as models cannot be underestimated, and we must remember that the modelling is rule governed; students learn strategies and how to modify them rather than rotely copying the model's actions (Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978). Stressing the value of strategies to students is necessary to encourage greater strategy use. Teachers can enhance perceived value with feedback showing how strategy use improves performance.

Steps to follow in strategy instruction

• Introduce a few strategies at a time
• Provide distributed practice on diverse tasks
• Have teachers serve as models
• Stress to students the value of strategy use
• Personalise feedback and teaching
• Determine opportunities for transfer
• Sustain student motivation
• Encourage habitual reflection and planning

The importance of feedback and personal teaching is highlighted; teachers tailor feedback to individual student needs and teachers and students collaborate to work out understandings of strategies. Azevedo, Greene, and Moos (2007) obtained benefits on college students' self-regulated learning by having a human tutor facilitate their use of strategies (i.e., prompt students to activate prior knowledge, plan time, monitor goal progress, summarise, use mnemonics). Teachers and students also must determine opportunities for transfer through discussions, prompts to students, and opportunities to practice adapting strategies to new tasks. Sustaining student motivation, especially by highlighting empowerment that accompanies strategy learning, is necessary. Finally, teachers encourage habitual reflection and planning. They model reflection, provide opportunities for students to think through problems, and create an environment that values reflection more than simply completing assignments or arriving at correct answers.