Constructivism: Instructional Applications

The scholastic corpus abounds with exempla of pedagogical applications that mirror constructivist tenets. A selection thereof shall be summarised within this present discourse.

The undertaking confronting pedagogues who endeavour to implement constructivist principles may prove formidable. Many are ill-prepared to instruct in a constructivist manner (Elkind, 2004), particularly if their preparatory schemes have not emphasised it. Furthermore, there exist factors inherent to scholastic institutions and systems that militate against constructivism (Windschitl, 2002). By way of illustration, scholastic administrators and instructors are held accountable for their pupils' achievements on standardised assessments. These assessments typically accentuate rudimentary skills of a lower calibre, thereby diminishing the import of profound conceptual comprehension. Scholastic cultures may similarly obstruct constructivism, notably if instructors have perpetuated identical pedagogical methods for numerous years and adhere to established curricula and disquisitions. Parents, too, may evince incomplete endorsement of instructors employing diminished direct instruction within the classroom, favouring instead time for pupils to construct their own understandings. Notwithstanding these prospective impediments, there exist manifold avenues via which instructors may integrate constructivist pedagogy into their instruction, particularly for subjects that readily lend themselves thereto (e.g., disputational matters wherein a definitively correct resolution remains elusive).

The Process of Discovery

Discovery learning, as understood in pedagogic discourse, pertains to the acquisition of knowledge through one's own endeavours (Bruner, 1961). The act of discovery entails the construction and validation of hypotheses, rather than mere reception through reading or passive listening to pedagogues. It is a species of inductive reasoning, whereby pupils proceed from the scrutiny of particular instances to the formulation of general rules, concepts, and principles. Discovery learning is also referred to as problem-based, inquiry-based, experiential, and constructivist learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).

Discovery constitutes a form of problem-solving (Klahr & Simon, 1999); it is not merely the unrestrained indulgence of pupils' whims. Albeit a minimally guided instructional methodology, it is possessed of direction; educators orchestrate activities wherein pupils engage in search, manipulation, exploration, and investigation. The introductory scenario serves as an exemplar of a discovery situation. Pupils assimilate novel knowledge pertinent to the domain, alongside such general problem-solving faculties as rule formulation, hypothesis validation, and information collation (Bruner, 1961).

Whilst some discoveries may present as fortuitous accidents, the preserve of fortunate individuals, the majority are, in verity, planned and predictable to a degree. Consider Pasteur's development of the cholera vaccine (Root-Bernstein, 1988). Pasteur absented himself on vacation during the summer of 1879, having been engaged in research on chicken cholera, and left unattended cultures of the germ for a duration of two months.

Upon his return, he ascertained that the cultures, albeit still active, had become avirulent; they were no longer capable of inducing sickness in fowl. Wherefore, he cultivated a fresh set of cultures from a natural outbreak of the malady and resumed his labours. Yet he found . . . that the hens he had previously exposed to the weakened germ culture remained immune to cholera. Only then did it become apparent to Pasteur that he had inadvertently immunized them. (p. 26)

This exemplifies the preponderance of discoveries, which are not flukes but rather a natural (albeit possibly unforeseen) consequence of systematic inquiry by the discoverer. Discoverers cultivate their discoveries by expecting the unexpected. Pasteur did not abandon the germ cultures altogether, but rather entrusted them to the care of his collaborator, Roux. Upon Pasteur's return from vacation, he inoculated chickens with the germs, and they evinced no signs of illness.

Root-Bernstein, 1988, p. 29:

But when the same chickens were later injected with a more virulent strain, they succumbed. No discovery here . . . Pasteur did not even initiate his first successful enfeeblement experiment until a few months later... . He and Roux had endeavoured to enfeeble the germs by passing them from one animal to another, by cultivating them in diverse media . . . and only after manifold such attempts did one of the experiments prove successful. . . . For some time, the strains that failed to kill chickens were also too weak to immunize them. But by March of 1880, Pasteur had developed two cultures with the properties of vaccines. The trick . . . was to employ a mildly acidic medium, not a strong one, and to leave the germ culture sitting in it for a prolonged period. Thus, he produced an attenuated organism capable of inducing an immune response in chickens. The discovery . . . was not an accident at all; Pasteur had posed a question—Is it possible to immunize an animal with a weakened infectious agent?—and then systematically searched for the answer.

To facilitate knowledge discovery, pupils necessitate preliminary groundwork (the well-prepared mind requires declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge). Once pupils possess the requisite prerequisite knowledge, judicious structuring of material permits them to discover important principles.

Teaching for Discovery

The pedagogy of discovery necessitates the presentation of questions, problems, or perplexing situations for resolution, and the encouragement of learners to proffer intuitive conjectures when uncertain. In the conduct of class discussions, educators might pose questions devoid of readily available answers, informing pupils that their responses shall not be graded, thereby compelling them to construct their own understandings. Discoveries are not confined to activities within the schoolhouse. During a unit on ecology, pupils might discover the rationale behind the habitation of certain species in specific locales and not others. Pupils might seek answers within classroom workstations, the school media centre, and on or off the school grounds. Educators furnish structure by posing questions and offering suggestions on the means of searching for answers. Greater pedagogic structure proves beneficial when pupils are unacquainted with the discovery procedure or necessitate extensive background knowledge.

Discovery is not universally appropriate for all types of learning. Discovery may impede learning when pupils possess no prior experience with the material or background information (Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999). The pedagogy of discovery learning may not be apposite for well-structured content that is readily presented. Pupils might discover which historical events transpired in which years, but this constitutes trivial learning. Should they arrive at erroneous answers, time would be squandered in reteaching the content. Discovery appears more suitable when the learning process is paramount, such as with problem-solving activities that motivate pupils to learn and acquire the requisite skills. However, the establishment of discovery situations (e.g., cultivating plants) often consumes time, and experiments may prove unsuccessful.

As a species of minimally guided instruction, discovery learning has elicited criticism. Mayer (2004) reviewed research spanning from the 1950s to the 1980s, comparing pure discovery learning (i.e., unguided, problem-based learning) with guided instruction. The research demonstrated that guided instruction yielded superior learning outcomes. Kirschner et al. (2006) contended that such instruction fails to account for the organisation, or architecture, of cognitive structures (e.g., working memory, long-term memory). Whilst minimally guided instruction may enhance pupils' problem-solving and self-directed learning (Hmelo-Silver, 2004), the most promising research has been conducted in the realms of medical or gifted education.

Note that these criticisms pertain to minimally guided instruction. Guided discovery, wherein educators orchestrate the situation such that learners are not abandoned to their own devices but rather receive support, may conduce to effective learning. Guided discovery also makes felicitous use of the social environment—a key feature of constructivism. Supports (scaffolding) for learning may be minimised when learners have developed certain skills and, consequently, are capable of guiding themselves. In determining whether to employ discovery, educators ought to consider the learning objectives (e.g., acquiring knowledge or learning problem-solving skills), available time, and cognitive capacities of the pupils.

Inquiry teaching doth represent a species of discovery learning, albeit it may be structured with augmented teacherly direction. Collins (1977; Collins & Stevens, 1983) didst formulate an inquiry model grounded upon the Socratic method of instruction. The objectives be to induce students to reason, to educe general principles, and to apply same to novel circumstances. Befitting learning outcomes encompass the formulation and testing of hypotheses, the differentiation 'twixt necessary and sufficient conditions, the making of predictions, and the determining when the making of predictions doth necessitate more intelligence.

In the implementation of this model, the pedagogue doth repeatedly interrogate the pupil. Interrogations be guided by precepts such as “Inquire about a case known,” “Select a counterexample for a factor insufficient,” “Pose a question misleading,” and “Question a prediction made without intelligence adequate” (Collins, 1977). Precept-generated interrogations aid students in formulating principles general and applying same to problems specific.

The subsequent representeth a sample dialogue 'twixt pedagogue (T) and student (S) anent the topic of population density (Collins, 1977):

Albeit this approach instructional was designed for tutoring one-to-one, with certain modifications it doth seem appropriate with small groups of students. One matter is that persons who serve as tutors do require training extensive to pose interrogations appropriate in response to a student’s level of cogitation. Furthermore, sound knowledge content-area is a prerequisite for skills problem-solving. Students who lack an understanding decent of knowledge basic be not likely to function well under a system inquiry designed to teach reasoning and application of principles. Other characteristics student (e.g., age, abilities) also may predict success under this model. As with other methods constructivist, pedagogues must consider the outcomes student and the likelihood that students can successfully engage in the process inquiry.

Peer-assisted learning methodologies comport well with the tenets of constructivism. Peer-assisted learning denotes instructional approaches wherein peers function as active participants in the educational process (Rohrbeck et al., 2003). Methodologies that emphasise peer-assisted learning encompass peer tutoring, reciprocal instruction, and cooperative learning (detailed in this section) (Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Slavin, 1995; Strain et al., 1981).

Peer-assisted learning has been demonstrated to foster academic achievement. In their conspectus of the extant literature, Rohrbeck et al. (2003) ascertained that peer-assisted learning was most efficacious with younger pupils (in their first to third years), those of urban extraction, from low-income households, and of minority ethnic origin. These findings are propitious, given the potential academic challenges confronting urban, low-income, and minority pupils. Rohrbeck et al. discovered no salient disparities attributable to content area (e.g., reading, mathematics). Beyond its educational merits, peer-assisted learning may also cultivate academic and social motivation for learning (Ginsburg-Block, Rohrbeck, & Fantuzzo, 2006; Rohrbeck et al., 2003). Peers who accentuate academic learning underscore its significance, which may then galvanise others within the social milieu.

As with other instructional paradigms, educators must deliberate upon the desired learning outcomes when determining the suitability of peer-assisted learning. Certain types of lessons (e.g., those prioritising inquiry skills) would appear to be particularly well-suited to this approach, especially where the cultivation of social outcomes is also a desideratum.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is frequently employed in classrooms (Slavin, 1994, 1995), yet when improperly structured, it may yield inferior learning outcomes compared with whole-class instruction. In cooperative learning, the objective is to cultivate in students the capacity to collaborate effectively with others. The task should be of such magnitude that it would prove excessively burdensome for a solitary student to complete within a reasonable timeframe. Furthermore, the task ought to lend itself well to a group endeavour, perhaps by comprising components that can be executed by individual students who then amalgamate their discrete contributions into a final deliverable.

Certain principles are conducive to the success of cooperative groups. One such principle is the formation of groups comprising students who are likely to collaborate harmoniously and who can develop and hone cooperative skills. This does not necessarily entail permitting students to select their own groups, as they may preferentially choose their acquaintances, potentially leaving some students without a group. Nor does it invariably necessitate heterogeneous groupings, wherein diverse ability levels are represented. Although such a strategy is frequently advocated, research indicates that high-achieving peers do not invariably benefit from being grouped with lower achievers (Hogan & Tudge, 1999), and the self-efficacy of lower achievers will not necessarily be augmented by observing the success of higher achievers (Schunk, 1995). Irrespective of the grouping method employed, educators should ensure that each group is capable of achieving success with reasonable exertion.

Groups also necessitate guidance regarding their intended accomplishments—that is, the anticipated deliverable—as well as the expected mode of conduct. The task should necessitate interdependence; no single group member should be capable of accomplishing the entirety of the task single-handedly. Ideally, the task should also admit of diverse approaches. For example, to address the topic of “Pirates in America,” a group of middle school students might deliver a presentation, employ posters, enact a skit, and engage class members in a treasure hunt.

Finally, it is of paramount importance to ensure that each group member is held accountable. If grades are assigned, it is incumbent upon group members to document their overall contributions to the group. A group wherein only two of six members perform the majority of the work, yet all receive an “A,” is likely to engender resentment.

Two variants of cooperative learning are the jigsaw method and STAD (student-teams-achievement divisions). In the jigsaw method, teams labour on material that has been subdivided into parts. Following each team's study of the material, each team member assumes responsibility for one part. The team members from each group then convene to discuss their respective parts, after which they return to their teams to assist other team members in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of their parts (Slavin, 1994). This jigsaw method amalgamates numerous desirable features of cooperative learning, including group work, individual accountability, and lucid objectives.

STAD groups study material after it has been presented by the educator (Slavin, 1994). Group members practice and study collaboratively but are assessed individually. Each member’s score contributes to the overall group score; however, because scores are predicated upon improvement, each group member is motivated to improve—that is, individual improvements elevate the overall group score. Although STAD constitutes a form of cooperative learning, it appears best suited for material with well-defined objectives or problems with unambiguous solutions: for instance, mathematical computations and social studies facts. Given its emphasis on improvement, STAD will not function as effectively where conceptual understanding is involved, as student gains may not materialise rapidly.

Class disquisitions prove beneficial when the desideratum is to attain a more profound conceptual comprehension or to examine multiple facets of a subject. The subject under consideration is one for which a definitive and unequivocal answer does not exist, but rather involves a complex or contentious matter. Students embark upon the disquisition possessing some cognisance of the subject and are expected to augment their comprehension as a consequence of the discourse.

Disquisitions are amenable to sundry disciplines, such as history, literature, science, and political economy. Irrespective of the subject, it is of paramount importance that a classroom atmosphere be cultivated that is conducive to unfettered discourse. Students will, in all likelihood, necessitate the provision of regulations for the disquisition (e.g., refraining from interrupting a speaker, maintaining arguments germane to the subject under consideration, abstaining from personal attacks upon fellow students). Should the instructor serve as the facilitator of the disquisition, then he or she must countenance manifold viewpoints, encourage students to share their perspectives, and remind students of the regulations when they are transgressed. Instructors may also solicit students to expound upon their opinions (e.g., “Pray, elucidate the rationale behind your conviction.”).

When the class is of considerable magnitude, small-group disquisitions may be preferable to those involving the entire class. Students who evince reluctance to speak within a large assemblage may find themselves less inhibited in a smaller coterie. Instructors can train students to officiate as facilitators of small-group disquisitions.

A variant of the disquisition is the debate, wherein students selectively argue for discrete sides of an issue. This necessitates preparation by the groups and, in all probability, some rehearsal if they are to deliver concise presentations espousing their respective stances. Instructors enforce the rules of the debate and ensure the participation of all team members. A more extensive disquisition with the class may ensue, thereby affording an opportunity to reinforce extant points or introduce novel perspectives.

Reflective teaching resteth upon judicious decision-making, duly considering knowledge appertaining to students, the contextual circumstances, psychological processes, learning mechanisms, motivational factors, and self-awareness. Albeit reflective teaching doth not constitute an integral facet of a constructivist perspective on learning, its underlying tenets are grounded in the assumptions of constructivism (Armstrong & Savage, 2002).

Components

Reflective teaching is predicated upon thoughtful deliberation, encompassing knowledge of students, the prevailing context, psychological processes, the dynamics of learning and motivation, and a profound understanding of oneself. Though reflective teaching is not inherently intertwined with a constructivist viewpoint on pedagogy, its foundational premises are rooted in the presuppositions of constructivism (Armstrong & Savage, 2002).

Henderson (1996) enumerated four essential constituents of reflective teaching, each inextricably linked to the act of decision-making (vide 'Components of Reflective Teaching Decisions'). Teaching decisions must needs be acutely attuned to the contextual milieu, which encompasseth the school itself, the subject matter, students' backgrounds, the temporal context within the academic year, pedagogical expectations, and similar considerations. Fluid planning implieth that instructional schemata must be sufficiently malleable to accommodate alterations dictated by prevailing circumstances. Should students evince a lack of comprehension of a given lesson, it would prove inefficacious to reiterate the selfsame lesson in an identical manner. Rather, the plan should be appropriately modified to facilitate student understanding.

Components of reflective teaching decisions

• Sensitive to the context
• Guided by fluid planning
• Informed by professional and personal knowledge that is critically examined
• Enhanced by formal and informal professional growth opportunities

Henderson’s model doth lay emphasis upon the teacher’s personal knowledge. Teachers ought to be cognisant of the rationale underpinning their actions and to cultivate the habit of acute observation. They must needs reflect upon and process a wide array of information pertaining to prevailing circumstances. Their decisions are fortified by professional development. Instructors must possess a formidable knowledge base from which to draw, enabling them to engage in flexible planning and to tailor lessons to accommodate student and contextual disparities.

Reflective teachers are active agents, assiduously seeking solutions to pedagogical challenges, rather than passively awaiting instruction. They persevere until the optimal solution is identified, eschewing less satisfactory alternatives. They are ethically driven, placing the students’ needs paramount, prioritising their welfare above personal convenience. Reflective educators thoughtfully consider evidence, assiduously reviewing classroom events and revising their pedagogical practices to better serve the needs of their charges. In summary, reflective teachers (Armstrong & Savage, 2002):

• Use context considerations
• Use personal knowledge
• Use professional knowledge
• Make fluid plans
• Commit to formal and informal professional growth opportunities

One may readily discern the underlying assumptions of constructivism which underpin these pronouncements. Constructivism doth ascribe significant import to the context of learning, premised on the notion that learning is inextricably situated. Individuals construct knowledge about themselves (e.g., their capabilities, predilections, attitudes) and their profession through experiential engagement. Teaching is not a rigid, unyielding function that, once a lesson is devised, proceeds unalterably. And finally, there existeth no definitive 'graduation' from the realm of teaching. Circumstances are perpetually subject to flux, and instructors must remain abreast of the latest developments in content, psychological understanding of learning and motivation, and individual student disparities.

Becoming a Reflective Teacher

The art of reflective teaching is akin to a skill, and like any other skill, it demandeth instruction and diligent practice. The following recommendations should prove beneficial in the cultivation of this aptitude.

The pursuit of reflective teaching requireth a well-developed personal knowledge. Instructors hold beliefs concerning their teaching proficiencies, encompassing subject matter expertise, pedagogical acumen, and an understanding of student capabilities. To cultivate personal knowledge, teachers must reflect upon and evaluate these beliefs through a process of self-questioning. For instance, teachers might pose questions such as: 'What is my understanding of the subjects I impart?' 'To what extent am I confident in my ability to effectively teach these subjects, such that students may acquire the requisite skills?' 'How certain am I that I can foster a conducive classroom environment which facilitateth learning?' 'What are my beliefs concerning how students learn?' 'Do I harbour any biases (e.g., that students from certain ethnic or socio-economic backgrounds are less capable of learning compared to others)?'

Personal knowledge is of paramount importance, for it provideth the foundation upon which one may seek improvement. For instance, teachers who perceive themselves as deficient in the utilisation of technology to teach social studies may avail themselves of professional development opportunities. Should they unearth biases within themselves, they may adopt strategies to mitigate any untoward effects stemming from such biases. Thus, should they believe that certain students are inherently less capable than others, they may seek methods to better facilitate the learning of the former.

The essence of reflective teaching also encompasses professional knowledge. Effective instructors are accomplished within their respective disciplines, possess a grasp of classroom management techniques, and evince familiarity with human development. Teachers who engage in critical reflection upon their professional knowledge and identify deficiencies may rectify these shortcomings, perhaps through the attendance of university courses or participation in staff development sessions.

Like other professionals, educators must remain apprised of the latest developments in their respective fields. They may achieve this by participating in professional organisations, attending conferences, subscribing to journals and periodicals, and engaging in discourse with their colleagues.

Thirdly, reflective teaching implieth meticulous planning and assessment. When reflective teachers engage in lesson planning, they do so with the express intention of reaching all students. A plenitude of valuable ideas for lesson plans may be gleaned from colleagues and practitioner journals. When students encounter difficulty in grasping content presented in a particular manner, reflective teachers consider alternative methods to achieve the selfsame objective.

Assessment is intrinsically intertwined with planning. Reflective teachers ponder the methods by which they shall assess the students’ learning outcomes. To acquire knowledge of assessment methodologies, teachers may be required to enrol in courses or participate in staff development initiatives. The authentic methods which have gained traction in recent years proffer a plethora of possibilities for assessing outcomes, but teachers may be compelled to consult with assessment experts and receive training in their application.

Constructivism doth represent an epistemology, or philosophical explication anent the nature of erudition. Constructivist theorists do reject the notion that scientific verities exist and await discovery and verification. Knowledge is not imposed from without, but rather formed within individuals. Constructivist theories do vary from those that postulate complete self-construction, through those that hypothesise socially mediated constructions, to those that argue that constructions do match reality. Constructivism doth require that we structure teaching and learning experiences to challenge students' thinking, such that they shall be enabled to construct new knowledge. A core premise doth hold that cognitive processes are situated (located) within physical and social contexts. The concept of situated cognition doth highlight these relations betwixt persons and situations.

Piaget's theory is constructivist and doth postulate that children do pass through a series of qualitatively distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The chief developmental mechanism is equilibration, which doth serve to resolve cognitive conflicts by changing the nature of reality to fit existing structures (assimilation) or changing structures to incorporate reality (accommodation).

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory doth emphasise the social environment as a facilitator of development and erudition. The social environment doth influence cognition through its tools—cultural objects, language, symbols, and social institutions. Cognitive change doth result from employing these tools in social interactions and from internalising and transforming these interactions. A key concept is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which doth represent the amount of erudition possible by a student, given proper instructional conditions. It is difficult to evaluate the contributions of Vygotsky's theory to erudition, as most research is recent and many educational applications that fit with the theory are not part of it. Applications that reflect Vygotsky's ideas are instructional scaffolding, reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration, and apprenticeships.

Private speech doth possess a self-regulatory function, yet is not socially communicative. Vygotsky did believe that private speech doth develop thought by organising behaviour. Children do employ private speech to comprehend situations and surmount difficulties. Private speech doth become covert with development, albeit overt verbalisation can occur at any age. Verbalisation can promote student achievement if it be relevant to the task and doth not interfere with performance. Self-instructional training is useful for assisting individuals to verbally self-regulate their performances.

Vygotsky's theory doth contend that erudition is a socially mediated process. Children do learn many concepts during social interactions with others. Structuring learning environments to promote these interactions doth facilitate erudition. Self-regulation doth include the coordination of mental processes, such as memory, planning, synthesis, and evaluation. Vygotsky did believe that language and the zone of proximal development are critical for the development of self-regulation. A key is the internalisation of self-regulatory processes.

Aspects of motivation relevant to constructivism do include contextual factors, implicit theories, and teachers' expectations. Multidimensional classrooms, which do possess many activities and allow for greater diversity in student performances, are more compatible with constructivism than are unidimensional classes. Characteristics that indicate dimensionaity are differentiation of task structure, student autonomy, grouping patterns, and salience of performance evaluations. The TARGET variables (task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time) do affect learners' motivation and erudition.

Students do hold implicit theories anent such issues as how they learn and what doth contribute to achievement. Implicit theories are formed during socialisation practices and self-reflection, and do influence students' motivation and erudition. Incremental theorists do believe that skills can be increased through effort. Entity theorists do view their abilities as fixed traits over which they possess little control. Research doth show that students who do believe erudition is under their control expend greater effort, rehearse more, and employ superior learning strategies. Teachers do convey their expectations to students in many ways. Teachers' expectations do influence teacher–student interactions, and some research doth show that, under certain conditions, expectations may affect student achievement. Teachers should expect all students to succeed and provide support (scaffolding) for them to do so.

The goal of constructivist learning environments is to provide rich experiences that encourage students to learn. Constructivist classrooms do teach grand concepts employing much student activity, social interaction, and authentic assessments. Students' ideas are avidly sought, and, compared with traditional classes, there is less emphasis on superficial erudition and more emphasis on deeper understanding. The APA learner-centred principles, which do address various factors (cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective, developmental, social, and individual differences), do reflect a constructivist learning approach.

Certain instructional methods that fit well with constructivism are discovery learning, inquiry teaching, peer-assisted learning, discussions and debates, and reflective teaching. Discovery learning doth allow students to obtain knowledge for themselves through problem solving. Discovery doth require that teachers arrange activities such that students can form and test hypotheses. It is not simply letting students do what they wish. Inquiry teaching is a form of discovery learning that may follow Socratic principles with much teacher questioning of students. Peer-assisted learning doth refer to instructional approaches wherein peers do serve as active agents in the learning process. Peer tutoring and cooperative learning are forms of peer-assisted learning. Discussions and debates are useful when the objective is to acquire greater conceptual understanding or multiple viewpoints of a topic. Reflective teaching is thoughtful decision-making that doth consider such factors as students, contexts, psychological processes, erudition, motivation, and self-knowledge. Becoming a reflective teacher doth require developing personal and professional knowledge, planning strategies, and assessment skills.