Introduction
Beyond its significance in cognition and erudition, development exerts considerable influence upon the motivations of children. Motivation has been previously elucidated within this very course ('Motivation'); the ensuing section shall meticulously examine its alterations contingent upon developmental progression.
Motivational influences operative in children may prove to be of diminished consequence in adolescents, and that which doth stimulate adolescents may be rendered ineffectual when applied to adults. Within any developmental epoch, a heterogeneity of motivational drivers doth prevail amongst individuals. Developmental researchers have, through assiduous inquiry, ascertained the modalities by which motivation doth transmute across the developmental continuum. These shall be duly addressed seriatim.
Developmental alterations in motivation
- Children's comprehension of motivational processes undergoes transformation.
- Motivation attains a state of greater differentiation and complexity.
- Quantitative levels of motivation exhibit fluctuation.
- Beliefs, values, and aspirational objectives evince a more harmonious correspondence with choices and resultant performances.
- Long-term motivation manifests a superior degree of sustained persistence.
Developmental Alterations
The apprehension of motivational processes in children doth undergo transformation with the passage of time (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). 'Tis observed that youthful minds oft equate aptitude with outcome, opining that those who excel are inherently more capable. As development unfolds, the notions of ability and exertion are distinguished, and children come to understand that both may influence results.
Akin thereto is the increasing complexity and differentiation of motivation (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). Juvenile minds possess a global sense of their capabilities. As they mature and advance in their scholastic pursuits, they gravitate towards particular interests, formulating distinct conceptions of their talents in diverse fields of study.
Furthermore, the levels of children's motivation are subject to change as they progress (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). Youngsters frequently exhibit a high degree of confidence in their abilities, yet such perceptions commonly wane with maturity (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005; Otis, Grouzet, & Pelletier, 2005; Watt, 2004; Wigfield, Eccles, & Rodriguez, 1998). Various factors have been cited as instigating this decline, encompassing school transitions, norm-referenced achievement feedback, social comparisons, and grading practices. However, it must be acknowledged that such alteration is not invariably problematic. To concentrate one's endeavours upon subjects in which one feels confident of success may engender accomplishment and a robust sense of self-efficacy (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). Similarly, the avoidance of tasks one deems beyond one's capabilities may forestall failures. Yet, in certain instances, this diminution extends to all academic spheres, resulting in diminished performance, grades, and motivation.
Concomitantly, as children mature, their beliefs, values, and objectives align more closely with their performances and choices (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). As children cultivate particular interests and perceive themselves as competent, they are drawn towards activities that correspond thereto. Thus, motivation and behaviour bear a greater resemblance to one another. It is not that one necessitates the other; rather, they indubitably influence one another. Whatever children feel capable of achieving, they apply themselves to, thereby honing their skills; and their perceptions of improved performance augment self-efficacy and motivation (Bandura, 1997).
Lastly, children become more adept at sustaining motivation over extended periods. Motivation among the young is often fleeting, as any elementary teacher can attest. As students develop, they gain the capacity to contemplate long-term goals, partition tasks into smaller sub-goals, and gauge their progress. The self-assessment of progress and the adaptation of strategies when they prove inefficacious are hallmarks of high-achieving students.
As previously noted, research doth indicate that as development proceeds, the influence of peers upon motivation increases, whilst that of parents diminishes (Steinberg et al., 1996); however, parental influence doth not altogether vanish. In their tender years, parents may exercise greater direction and control over their children's activities. As children mature, they seek less parental oversight. Nevertheless, parental expectations and engagement with children remain influential. Klauda (2009) reported that parental support for adolescent children's reading bears a positive relationship with adolescents' motivation for the same. Amongst older children, such support may manifest as the discussion and sharing of books.
The role of friends seems especially critical. Friends are inclined to evince similar levels of motivation across indices such as self-perceptions of competence (e.g., self-efficacy), academic standards, the importance of meeting standards, and preference for challenges (Altermatt & Pomerantz, 2003). In their study of middle-school students, Wentzel, Barry, and Caldwell (2004) discovered that students devoid of friendships exhibited lower prosocial behaviour and grade-point averages, in addition to experiencing greater emotional distress, when compared to students with friends. Thus, friends are of great importance to both learning and motivation.
Implications
The aforementioned points proffer insights into how motivation strategies may be judiciously adjusted contingent upon the developmental stage of the scholars. With regard to goal-setting, it is suggested that short-term (proximal) and specific goals be implemented with younger children. In consideration of their circumscribed temporal frames of reference, a goal extending beyond the immediate context is apt to exert negligible motivational influence, if any at all.
It is of paramount importance to collaborate with scholars on the delineation of goals and to facilitate the partitioning of long-term goals into subordinate goals, complete with designated timelines. When pedagogues assign projects, they may aid scholars in comprehending the constituent tasks and in formulating schedules for their completion. Scholars may then assess their advancement against the established plan, thus ascertaining whether they are progressing suitably to conclude the undertaking punctually. Goal-setting and self-monitoring of progress represent pivotal motivational processes that contribute substantially to self-regulation (B. Zimmerman, 2000).
That the preponderance of younger scholars generally evince optimism regarding their capabilities is seemingly advantageous for motivation. However, the concomitant downside resides in the potential for these scholars to attempt tasks exceeding their current means and, consequently, to encounter failures. Given that the majority of endeavours in the elementary grades involve fundamental skills, pedagogues present scholars with tasks that they ought reasonably to master. As tasks escalate in complexity, pedagogues must adequately prepare scholars for the augmented difficulty. Assiduous effort expended on a difficult task, even absent immediate success, does not necessarily engender the same deleterious effects on perceived ability as may ensue when scholars perceive a task as facile.
As the capacity for social comparison evolves to encompass internal qualities (e.g., aptitudes), it behoves pedagogues to endeavour to concentrate scholars’ comparisons upon their own progress rather than upon comparative assessments of their performances against those of their peers. In the section of the course entitled 'Social Cognitive Theory', it was observed that self-evaluations of progress exert considerable effects upon self-efficacy. Even in instances where scholars recognise that their performances lag behind those of others, if they harbour a conviction that they have made discernible progress, they may concurrently entertain the belief that they are capable of sustaining such progress and, ultimately, attaining higher levels of achievement.
Many educational institutions espouse mottos such as “All children can learn.” This class of motto implies a stance wherein pedagogues and administrators decline to countenance excuses for failure. Even should a decline in children’s perceived capabilities transpire as they mature, such a decline ought not to culminate in failure, provided that it is not substantial and that the prevailing ethos within the educational institution is one wherein scholars are expected to succeed. Should the aforementioned decline result in a more precise correspondence with actual performance, then scholars are favourably positioned to assess their respective strengths and weaknesses, thereby facilitating the identification of areas wherein supplementary instruction is warranted. Maintaining the alignment of capability self-perceptions with manifest progress is crucial for the sustenance of motivation.
Motivation and Development
Research furnishes several insights into how pedagogues might judiciously appeal to motivational processes at various junctures in development. Young scholars are motivated by laudatory commendations from their pedagogues, as well as by the positive sequelae of their actions. Miss Kathy Stone establishes a propitious tone for her class by consistently reminding them of their capacity to learn. She commends scholars for their learning progress (e.g., “That’s splendid—you are indeed mastering this”). Scholars accrue leisure time through the diligent completion of their assigned tasks and the adherence to classroom regulations. She likewise commends commendable behaviour (e.g., “I am most gratified by the assiduousness with which you are labouring today”) and employs social comparative information as a means of ameliorating undesirable behaviour (e.g., “Tisha, observe the exemplary manner in which Miss Brianna is working—I have every confidence that you are capable of emulating her”).
Mr. Jim Marshall is cognisant of the fact that not all his scholars harbour an intrinsic interest in the subject of history. He is, moreover, aware that his scholars are preoccupied with perceptions of their abilities and are loath to be perceived as incapable of learning. In his instructional practice, he endeavours to minimise activities that accentuate ability differentials, such as historical quiz bees and rapid-response questioning. Instead, he directs his scholars to collaborate on group projects, wherein each scholar is responsible for specific tasks that contribute to the final product. Members of the group also share responsibility for class presentations and dramatizations of historical events. Although Mr. Marshall assigns grades based on assessments and assignments, in the public sphere, he furnishes a context wherein all scholars can achieve success and be regarded favourably by their peers.
Mrs. Gina Brown capitalises upon her understanding that, as scholars advance in age, they are better positioned to evaluate their capabilities with enhanced realism. In preparation for unit examinations, she directs scholars to evaluate their capabilities to perform diverse tasks, such as “Define the salient terms within the framework of Mr. Piaget’s theory” and “Explain how peer exemplars might be employed in a classroom context to impart skills and to cultivate observers’ self- efficacy.” She provides erudition materials on pertinent topics for those scholars who assess themselves as being less capable in a particular area. She reviews, with the class as a whole, those topics in which self-evaluations are generally low. In conjunction with the scholars’ field placements in educational institutions, she requests that they evaluate their skills in tasks such as “Tutoring a child in reading” and “Assisting the pedagogue in the design of a lesson on fractions.” In collaboration with the pedagogues within the aforementioned educational institutions, she conducts tutorials on topics in which scholars’ self-evaluations and behaviours indicate lower perceived capabilities. By affording scholars the opportunity to provide self-evaluations, she aids them in assuming greater responsibility for their own learning and in inculcating the type of self-reflection on teaching that their academic programmes are designed to foster.