Cognitive Theory: Instructional Applications (Social Cognitive Theory)

A plethora of notions within the ambit of Social Cognitive Theory commend themselves efficaciously to pedagogy and the facilitation of student learning. Didactic applications encompassing exemplars, self-efficacy, elucidated instances, and tutelage, and mentorship, all bear witness to the principles inherent in Social Cognitive Theory.

Instructive exemplars serve to facilitate erudition and furnish intelligence appertaining to self-efficacy. Pupils who observe pedagogues expounding upon and demonstrating concepts and skills are disposed to acquire knowledge and to harbour the conviction that they are capable of further study. Furthermore, pedagogues proffer persuasive intelligence regarding self-efficacy to their pupils. Pedagogues who introduce lessons by asserting that all pupils are capable of learning and that, through diligent application, they shall master the novel skills, instil in pupils self-efficacy for erudition, which is corroborated when pupils successfully engage with the task at hand. In inquiries wherein exemplars comport themselves in one manner whilst instructing observers to comport themselves differently, children are more readily influenced by actions than by mere verbalisations (Bryan & Walbek, 1970). It is incumbent upon pedagogues to ensure that their directives to pupils (e.g., “Maintain a tidy desk”) are consonant with their own actions (i.e., the pedagogue’s desk is maintained in a state of tidiness).

In a like manner, peer exemplars may serve to promote pupil motivation and erudition. Relative to pedagogues, peers may exhibit a greater focus upon “how to accomplish it,” thereby enhancing erudition amongst observers. Moreover, observing a peer of similar standing succeeding instils a vicarious sense of self-efficacy for erudition in observers, which is validated when they perform well (Schunk, 1987). When employing peers as exemplars, it is advantageous to select exemplars such that all pupils may relate to at least one. This may necessitate the utilisation of multiple peer exemplars, wherein the peers represent varying levels of skill.

The significance of self-efficacy in the acquisition of knowledge is amply demonstrated. In deciding upon the instructional methodologies to employ, it is of paramount importance that educators assess their influence not only upon the students' grasp of the subject matter but also upon their sense of self-efficacy. It is conceivable that a method conducive to learning may yet fail to bolster self-efficacy. For instance, the provision of copious assistance to students is liable to aid their scholastic endeavours, yet it may contribute but little to their conviction in their own capacity to learn or to acquit themselves creditably unaided. As Bandura (1986, 1997) hath counselled, intervals of self-directed mastery, wherein students engage in the independent exercise of skills, are indispensable.

Whilst proficient exemplars may impart skills, it is analogous exemplars that prove most efficacious in fostering self-efficacy. To have the most mathematically adept student in a class demonstrate arithmetical operations may indeed instruct observers in those skills, yet many among the latter may not experience a heightening of self-efficacy, owing to their belief that they shall ne'er attain the proficiency of the demonstrator. Oftentimes, the most accomplished students serve as tutors to their less capable peers, which may redound to an improvement in learning, but this ought to be supplemented by periods of independent practice to cultivate self-efficacy.

The self-efficacy of prospective pedagogues may be cultivated through preparatory schemes that incorporate internships with master teachers, wherein the former may observe and practise the art of instruction. For those already engaged in the profession, continuous professional development may furnish them with novel strategies applicable to challenging circumstances, such as the promotion of learning amongst students of varying aptitudes, methods of engagement with students of limited proficiency in English, and means of involving parents in the educational progress of their progeny. By alleviating hindrances to teaching (e.g., excessive administrative burdens), administrators empower teachers to concentrate upon the amelioration of curricula and the scholastic advancement of their students.

Worked examples are graphic portrayals of problem solutions (Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000). Worked examples present step-by-step problem solutions, often with accompanying diagrams or sound (narration). A worked example provides a model, with accompanying explanation, that illustrates how a proficient problem solver would proceed. Learners study worked examples before they attempt to solve problems themselves. Worked examples are often used in instruction in mathematics and science, although their use need not be confined to these disciplines.

The theoretical underpinnings for worked examples derive from information processing theory. However, worked examples also reflect many principles of social cognitive theory. Worked examples incorporate cognitive models and demonstration plus explanation. As with other complex forms of observational learning, students do not learn how to solve a particular problem but rather general skills and strategies that they can use to solve a wider class of problems. Worked examples also possess motivational benefits. They may help to elevate self-efficacy in learners when, subsequent to reviewing worked examples, they believe that they comprehend the model and can apply the skills and strategies themselves (Schunk, 1995).

Certain principles ought to be borne in mind when employing worked examples. It is advantageous to employ more than one mode of presentation, rather than a single mode. Thus, a worked example might include textual (words, numbers), graphical (arrows, charts), and aural (sounds) information. However, excessive complexity may overload learners’ attention and memory capabilities. Research doth also indicate that two examples are superior to a solitary one, two varied examples are superior to two examples of the same type, and intermixing practice with worked examples produces superior learning than if all examples are presented first, followed by practice (Atkinson et al., 2000). Thus, an algebra pedagogue instructing a lesson on solving equations in one unknown might present two worked examples of the form , subsequent to which students solve problems. Then the pedagogue might present two worked examples of the form , subsequent to which students solve problems of this type. The worked examples could be accompanied by graphics and sound, as in interactive computer-based learning environments.

Tutoring and mentoring do reflect a multitude of the social cognitive tenets discoursed upon in this chapter. Tutoring doth allude to a state wherein one or more persons serve as the instructional agents for another, usually in a specific subject or for a particular purpose (Stenhoff & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2007). When peers are the instructional agents, tutoring is a form of peer-assisted learning (Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller, 2003).

Tutors serve as instructional models for tutees by expounding and demonstrating skills, operations, and strategies that tutees are to learn. Both adults and children can be effective tutors for children. As noted earlier, however, there may be some motivational benefits that result from peer tutors. Effective peer tutors are those whom tutees perceive as similar to themselves save that tutors are farther along in their skill acquisition. The perception of similarity may lead tutees to believe that if the tutors could learn, they can as well, which can raise tutees’ self-efficacy and motivation.

Researchers also have examined the effects of tutoring on tutors. Similar to the results of instructional self-efficacy, tutors with higher self-efficacy for tutoring are more apt to exert effort, tackle difficult material, and persist longer with tutees than are tutors with lower self-efficacy (Roscoe & Chi, 2007). There also is some evidence that tutoring can enhance tutors’ motivation and self-efficacy (Roscoe & Chi, 2007).

Mentoring involves the teaching of skills and strategies to students or other professionals within advising and training contexts (Mullen, 2005). Mentoring can be formal/institutionalised or informal/casual. In a formal mentoring arrangement, the mentor may be assigned to the protégé based on organisational structure and procedures, whereas informal arrangements occur spontaneously and tend not to be officially structured or managed (Mullen, 2005). Ideally mentoring incorporates mutual learning and engagement between the mentor and protégé. Thus, mentoring is a fuller and deeper educational experience than tutoring, which is more apprenticeship oriented. While tutoring emphasises content instruction within a short time period, mentoring typically involves modelled counsel and guidance over a longer time.

Mentoring is common at various levels of education, such as in learning communities, inquiry and writing groups, university–school partnerships, staff development, higher education, and peer coaching (Mullen, 2005). In higher education, mentoring often occurs between more- and less-experienced professors or between professors and students. In this context, mentoring ideally becomes a developmental relationship where more-experienced professors share their expertise with and invest time in less-experienced professors or students to nurture their achievement and self-efficacy (Johnson, 2006; Mullen, in press).

Mentoring reflects many social cognitive tenets and can have instructional and motivational benefits. Protégés learn skills and strategies that can help them be successful in their environments from mentors who model, expound, and demonstrate these skills and strategies. Protégés who perceive themselves as similar in important ways to mentors may develop higher self-efficacy for being successful through their interactions with mentors. Similar to motivation, mentoring is a key self-regulated learning process that emphasises goal-directed activity over time (Mullen, in press). Mentoring of doctoral students has been shown to improve their self-regulation, self-efficacy, motivation, and achievement (Mullen, in press). Mentors also can learn and refine their skills through their interactions with their protégés, which could raise their self-efficacy for continuing to succeed. Consistent with social cognitive theory, the mentoring relationship can result in reciprocal benefits for both parties.

Social cognitive learning theory doth contend that individuals acquire knowledge from their social milieux. In Bandura's theory, human functioning is viewed as a series of reciprocal interactions 'twixt personal factors, behaviours, and environmental events. Learning is an information processing activity wherein knowledge is cognitively represented as symbolic representations, serving as guides for action. Learning occurreth enactively through actual performances and vicariously by observing models, by heeding instructions, and by engaging with print or electronic materials. The consequences of behaviour are especially important. Behaviours that result in successful consequences are retained; those that lead to failures are discarded.

Social cognitive theory presenteth an agentic perspective of human behaviour, in that persons can learn to set goals and self-regulate their cognitions, emotions, behaviours, and environments in ways to facilitate the attainment of those goals. Key self-regulation processes are self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. These processes occur prior to, during, and following task engagement.

Much historical work existeth on imitation, but these perspectives do not fully capture the range and influence of modelling processes. Bandura and colleagues have shown how modelling greatly expands the range and rate of learning. Various modelling effects are distinguished: inhibition and disinhibition, response facilitation, and observational learning. Observational learning through modelling expands the learning rate, as well as the amount of knowledge acquired. Subprocesses of observational learning are attention, retention, production, and motivation.

According to social cognitive theory, observing a model doth not guarantee learning or later ability to perform the behaviours. Rather, models provide information about probable consequences of actions and motivate observers to act accordingly. Factors influencing learning and performance are developmental status of learners, prestige and competence of models, and vicarious consequences to models.

Among the important motivational influences on learning are goals, outcome expectations, values, and self-efficacy. Goals, or that which one is trying to accomplish, enhance learning through their effects on perceived progress, self-efficacy, and self-evaluations. As people work on a task, they compare their progress with their goal. The perception of progress raiseth self-efficacy and sustaineth motivation. Goal properties of specificity, proximity, and difficulty enhance self-perceptions and motivation, as do self-set goals and goals for which people make a commitment to attain.

Outcome expectations (perceived consequences of behaviour) affect learning and motivation because people strive to attain desired outcomes and shun undesirable ones. People also act in concert with their values, working towards outcomes that they find self-satisfying.

Self-efficacy referreth to perceived capabilities of learning or performing behaviours at designated levels. It is not the same as knowing what to do. People gauge their self-efficacy based on their performance attainments, vicarious consequences to models, forms of persuasion, and physiological indicators. Actual performances provide the most reliable information to use in assessing self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can affect choice of activities, effort, persistence, and achievement. Instructional self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy, which have been studied with teachers, bear a positive relation to student learning and achievement.

Researchers have found support for Bandura's theory in a variety of contexts involving cognitive, social, motor, health, instructional, and self-regulatory skills. Self-efficacy hath been shown to predict behavioural change with different types of participants (e.g., adults, children) in various settings. This research also hath shown that learning of complex skills occurs through a combination of enactive and vicarious learning. Observers acquire an approximation of the skill by observing models. Subsequent practice of the skill alloweth teachers to provide corrective feedback to learners. With additional practice, learners refine and internalise self-regulatory skills and strategies. Important instructional applications of social cognitive theory involve models (mastery, coping, teacher, peer, multiple), self-efficacy, worked examples, and tutoring and mentoring.