The Articles and Publications Hub

Auctions in ancient Greece: definitions, main characteristics, and their implementation in the Greek poleis.

Life as an ordinary family in an Ancient Greek polis: daily routines, income, expenses, common goods, and habits in the city-states of Greece.

Slavery from the perspective of Ancient Greeks: definition, main characteristics, rights, roles, and social position.

The role and value of horses in the life of Ancient Greek poleis.

Using archaeological sources, we have compiled prices of main goods and listed them. Based on records of wine prices, we present a comparative table showing their equivalents in modern ordinary wine by bottle quantity.

So, how the auctions were designed in the Ancient Greece? Detailed overview.

This section explores the early development of Rome, from its legendary foundation to the emergence of political institutions, city-building concepts, and social structures. We examine Romulus and Remus, the proto-Senate (Cenate), the Senate, early urban settlements on the Palatine, domestic architecture, ritual sites, and the evolution of social hierarchies. Using both ancient literary sources and archaeological evidence, the section provides a historically grounded context to understand Rome’s transformation and the origins of social and economic activities, including auctions, in the classical world.

This section explores the impact of Ancient Greece on early Rome (Regal and early Republican periods, 8th–4th century BCE), focusing on cultural, religious, artistic, and political influences. Drawing on literary testimonies—especially Cicero’s reflections on philosophy, rhetoric, and Greek contributions—alongside limited archaeological evidence, we examine how Roman culture was shaped by Greek models. The section also addresses the methodological caution needed due to temporal gaps, author biases, and the scarcity of direct archaeological contacts.

This section explores Rome’s formative years (c. 753–673 BCE) under its first two kings, Romulus and Numa Pompilius. It examines population estimates, social stratification, political institutions such as the Senate and Curiate Assembly, the monarch’s imperium, military organization, urban foundation, and economic structures. Special attention is given to the contrast between Romulus’ militaristic, expansionist rule and Numa’s religiously-centered, law-oriented governance. While no formal auctions or monetary systems existed, barter, tribute, and early client-patron networks regulated economic and social exchange. Archaeological and literary evidence are integrated to provide a historical perspective on early Roman society, urbanization, and civic life.

This section examines Rome under its third king, Tullus Hostilius (c. 673–642 BCE), focusing on the revival of militaristic policies following Numa Pompilius’ religious pacification. It covers political institutions, social stratification, military organization, urban expansion, and population integration, particularly after the conquest of Alba Longa. The section highlights Tullus’ aggressive foreign policy, including wars against Fidenae, Veii, and the Sabines, and the legendary Horatii and Curiatii duel as a ritualized conflict resolution. While Rome’s economy remained subsistence-based with no formal markets or auctions, the absorption of new populations strengthened client–patron networks and manpower. Comparisons with Romulus and Numa underscore Tullus’ emphasis on territorial and military expansion rather than institutional or religious reforms.

This section explores Rome under its fourth king, Ancus Marcius (c. 640–616 BCE), who combined the religious focus of Numa Pompilius with the military vigor of Tullus Hostilius. Key developments include territorial expansion through conquest and integration of Latin populations, the strengthening of the Senate with new patrician families, and the establishment of crucial infrastructure: the Pons Sublicius (first bridge over the Tiber) and Ostia, Rome’s first port, which facilitated trade and resource control. Ancus instituted the fetiales priesthood to formalize declarations of war and peace, consolidating Rome’s legal-religious framework. While his reign laid foundations for Rome’s proto-commercial economy, trade remained largely barter-based, and no structured market mechanisms such as auctions existed. Socially, the integration of conquered peoples increased complexity and urbanization, creating a more mixed society.

This section covers Rome under its fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus (c. 616–579 BCE), emphasizing his centralization of authority, military campaigns, urban development, and proto-economic management. Tarquinius strengthened royal power, reorganized the Senate (expanding it from 100 to 200 members), formalized citizen assemblies, and created lictors to symbolize imperium. He initiated major infrastructure projects, including the Cloaca Maxima, expanded city walls, and the Circus Maximus, and promoted temples to reinforce religious legitimacy. Economically, Rome remained largely barter-based, supplemented by weighted bronze (aes rude) for exchange. Public works generated employment, tribute and land allocation were organized by the state, and trade with neighboring Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans increased, though formal marketplaces or auctions did not yet exist. Socially, patricians maintained dominance, plebeians had limited participation, and new client-patron networks emerged. Comparative analysis highlights the contrast with Greek poleis, where coinage, formal markets, and integrated trade systems were already in place.

This section examines Rome under its sixth king, Servius Tullius (c. 578–534 BCE), focusing on his major constitutional, social, and economic reforms. Servius introduced the first systematic census, organizing citizens into wealth-based classes and centuries, creating the Centuriate Assembly (Comitia Centuriata), and establishing urban tribes to bind the growing population to civic structures. Patricians retained elite status, but plebeians gained structured political recognition. Economic organization advanced with census-based taxation, property assessment, and proportional military obligations. Urban development included expansion of the Servian Wall and public buildings. Despite these reforms, Rome remained pre-monetary, barter-dominated, and lacked formal auction or marketplace institutions; trade occurred locally, with riverine commerce via Ostia and imports from Etruria and Mediterranean sources. The king’s authority centralized political, religious, and military power, while proto-democratic elements emerged through class-based voting in assemblies.

This section examines Rome under its seventh and last king, Tarquinius Superbus (534–509 BCE). Tarquinius ruled as an autocrat, centralizing political, religious, and military authority while largely bypassing the Senate. He carried out aggressive military campaigns against Latin cities and the Volsci, extracting tribute, captives, and resources to support Rome’s urban development. Monumental projects, such as the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus and the completion of the Cloaca Maxima, mobilized forced labor and showcased resource management. Economic activity remained pre-monetary: trade was barter-based or conducted with weighted metal (aes rude) and agricultural goods. Ostia and river transport facilitated imports of Greek pottery, Etruscan bronzes, and possibly wine and oil, while salt, timber, and surplus agricultural products were exported. No structured public auctions or market institutions existed; the distribution of land, slaves, and other assets was directly controlled by the king. Tarquinius’ oppressive policies and concentration of power ultimately provoked the revolution that ended monarchy and paved the way for the Republic.

A detailed account of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Rome’s seventh and final king, exploring his rise to power, authoritarian rule, and the events leading to the abolition of the monarchy. The article examines political usurpation, suppression of the Senate, arbitrary justice, manipulation of priesthoods, military campaigns, taxation, and urban projects such as the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus and Cloaca Maxima. It also narrates the scandal of Sextus Tarquinius and Lucretia, which catalyzed a revolutionary movement, resulting in the establishment of the Roman Republic. Sources, primarily Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, are legendary and posthumous; the article contextualizes them within Roman moral and political memory. Economic activity under Tarquinius remained pre-monetary, barter-based, with tribute, labor levies, and state-directed redistribution, with no structured auctions or independent markets.

An overview of Rome’s brief interregnum period immediately following the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, highlighting the transitional governance mechanisms before the election of the first consuls. The article explains the appointment of interreges, temporary rulers serving 5-day terms to organize elections, summon assemblies, and supervise voting procedures. It details the role of the Senate in providing continuity, advising interreges, and overseeing civil and military matters, while ensuring the transfer of power to the new Republican system. The election of Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus as Rome’s first consuls marks the successful completion of this no-power period, establishing principles of authority derived from assemblies and Senate guidance rather than monarchy.

An analytical overview comparing the political structures of early Rome and classical Athens, emphasizing citizen participation, executive powers, legislative and judicial tools, and mechanisms to check abuse. Rome’s mixed constitution combined aristocratic control with limited citizen influence through wealth- and military-based centuries, while Athens practiced egalitarian direct democracy and sortition for councils. The article also highlights conceptual parallels between Rome’s century-based voting in the Comitia Centuriata and the modern U.S. Electoral College, illustrating the influence of intermediary units on collective decision-making and the balance between popular input and structured representation.

A structured overview of Rome’s early Republican period, covering the first consuls after the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus through to 447 BC. The article provides a year-by-year review of consular officeholders, political structures including consular powers and Senate interactions, early legislative reforms (e.g., provocatio), and social stratification among patricians, plebeians, clients, and slaves. Military organization, with citizen-soldier levies, early economic systems (aes rude, barter), taxation, and regional trade are reviewed. The narrative highlights historically documented events alongside legendary or reconstructed accounts, focusing on the evolutionary steps that established the Republic’s foundational institutions.

A detailed overview of the Decemvirate period in early Republican Rome, when consuls were suspended and a ten-member board (Decemviri Legibus Scribundis) held supreme civil, legal, and limited military authority to codify Roman law. The article covers historical context, social tensions between patricians and plebeians, the legal and political powers of decemviri, composition of the first decemvirate, and the resulting Twelve Tables. The narrative also examines the suspension of traditional institutions like consuls, tribunes, and assemblies, highlighting the Decemvirate’s strategic role in stabilizing Roman society and institutionalizing legal protections.

An overview of the Second Decemvirate in early Republican Rome, highlighting the codification of the final two tables of the Twelve Tables, increased oligarchic control under Appius Claudius, suspension of consuls and tribunes, and plebeian exclusion leading to social unrest. The article details legislative, judicial, and limited military powers of the decemviri, their administrative activities, historical significance, and enduring legacy of the Twelve Tables as the foundation of Roman law and Republican institutions. Sources include Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and the Fasti Capitolini, with modern scholarly assessments.

A detailed overview of the key institutions of the early Roman Republic, including consuls, Senate, tribunes of the plebs, popular assemblies, censors, and other magistrates. The article explains their roles, powers, limitations, interactions, and how the Decemvirate temporarily replaced or superseded them. Focus is given to civil, military, religious, legislative, and financial authority, as well as checks on power and plebeian protections.

An overview of the first formal codification of Roman law (c. 451–450 BC) created during the Decemvirate. The Twelve Tables established written rules covering civil, criminal, procedural, family, property, and religious law, reducing arbitrary magistrate authority and protecting plebeian rights. The section highlights historical context, drafting procedure, content of each table, legal and social significance, comparisons with Greek codifications (Draco, Solon, Lycurgus), and long-term impact on Roman law and society.

An overview of Rome’s primitive but gradually stabilizing monetary and economic system around 448 BC, in the wake of the Decemvirate and the Twelve Tables. Covers barter, bronze currency (aes rude / aes signatum), market activity, auctions, debt and credit regulation, trade practices, imports and exports, and the effects of legal reforms on economic stability and citizen participation.

An overview of auctions in early Republican Rome, highlighting their central role in property transfer, debt enforcement, public contracts, and estate sales. Covers legal regulation under the Twelve Tables, procedural practices, public and private auctions, participants' rights and obligations, payment methods, types of lots sold, and the integration of auctions into markets and Roman civic life.

An explanatory publication covering the basics of measurement methodology and the representation of measurement units.

An introduction to the concepts of space and distance, their interrelations, and our patterns of conceptual acceptance — exploring the discussion of the universe versus space.

A narration and an attempt to summarize the human approach to adopting consciousness in relation to the real-world space surrounding the individual.

A discussion on communicative adaptation and the fundamentals of data and information transmission within groups or colonies of social creatures.

An overview of one of the earliest known archaeological cultures ever discovered — and possibly the first evidence of patterning lengths into standards. (Speculative)

An archaeological overview of the Nabta Playa culture within the article’s context (measurement units across cultures).

Here we continue our journey through African prehistoric archaeological discoveries.

The Bovidian, or Pastoral Period (6000–4000 BC), marks our next stop on this journey.

This is our last stop before we move to later periods and another region — but first, we have something to tell you about the Gobero archaeological culture.

Cultural transition from African prehistory to Sumer, Persia, Assyria, Egypt, and all famously known ancient cultures, or the Great Migration Pathway.

An introductory overview of Sumerian culture and what we currently know about it.

Table listing artefacts, their estimated dates of origin, and researchers’ remarks about the possible purposes of the artefacts (Sumerian Kingdom regional excavations).

Overview of the social hierarchy, administration, and economic organisation within the Sumerian state.

Table presenting Sumerian measurement units with approximated values in the modern metric system, including length, volume, weight, and a summary of elementary knowledge in mathematics and calculation.

Brief discussion and transition to the next cultural section.

An overview of ancient Egyptian culture and societal structure, focusing on its systems of measurement.

An introduction to the early settlements and inhabitant groups along the Nile River before the rise of the pharaohs.

Facts about the period, excavations, and early state formation tendencies.

During socio-cultural evolution, the establishment of authority becomes an unavoidable process...

This section contains a set of tables with data and articles related to state measurement regulations and recorded standards.

A comprehensive review of Ancient Greece’s socio-cultural background and how its measurement systems were derived from it.

A generalized summary table of the main measurement units used during the ancient Greek period.

This article demonstrates the lack of unified measurement systems across five prominent ancient Greek poleis: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Delphi, and Syracuse.

This chapter introduces the cultural background of Ancient Rome, which served as the fundament for the development of its measurement system.

The Romans adopted several Greek units of measurement.

Emperor Augustus erected a monument in the Roman Forum marking the starting point of all Roman roads...

You may search in this table the Roman Standardized Units, for the Rome Empire Period

Roman measurement units: origins, development, and application

Prehistoric Israel State and its culture-based structural construct, to which we definitely rely the measurements and their standardisation

In this section, we briefly pass through the conditions and evidence that led to the Kingdom’s appearance.

Early Israelite society was primarily agrarian and organized around extended family units. Archaeological evidence indicates that Israelites lived in nuclear households, often clustered in small villages...

A journey through archaeologically proven evidence related to the declared topic...

A brief account of the Crown’s representatives presented as a chronological overview of the kings of the Kingdom of Judah, from its establishment in the 10th century BCE until the Babylonian conquest in 586 BCE. This timeline includes the duration of each king’s reign, their character as depicted in biblical narratives, and the notable events that occurred during their rule.

538 BCE: King Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and allowed the exiles to return. This is the start of the Second Temple period...

If you have read carefully — with no mercy to skip the lateral influences upon the Judaic state culture from neighboring civilisations or their eventual impacts — we may now trace the units themselves and attempt to uncover the cultural influences behind them.

Length units used in Ancient Israel, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Weight units used in Ancient Israel, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Volume units used in Ancient Israel, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

This chapter devoted to two cultures, Babylonia and Persia, and here uncover why...

And here the place we should turning backward, to culture, already passed but under other angle...

As we have already seen, the Babylonian Kingdom did not arise in a vacuum — its very existence was shaped by historical inevitability. The following points will only emphasise these outcomes...

Length units used in ancient babylon, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Area units used in ancient babylon, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Weight units used in ancient babylon, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Volume units used in ancient babylon, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

The cultural background of Persia has its roots in the Assyrian Kingdom, and a brief overview will reveal the socio-cultural intercrosses and inheritance from them...

Length units presented in table form, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Area units presented in table form, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Weight units presented in table form, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Volume units presented in table form, listed with their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

We have passed through many cultures, and the globe still shows no end. Our journey continues — this time...

Here, the authors demonstrate, in a systematic and scientific way, how to build a theory, design a hypothesis, and then derive outcomes to set them as patterns — which, in the next stage of the research process, will be tested for credibility.

After Mehrgarh’s late Chalcolithic period, the Kachi Plain and neighboring valleys (Nausharo, Mundigak, Damb Sadaat)...

It is time to introduce the cultural measurement system. To avoid fragmentation among the units, we choose exactly the c. 2600–1900 BCE (Mature Harappan Phase) period, and note that the system mainly developed from earlier regional practices (e.g., Mehrgarh and Early Harappan Amri–Kot Diji cultures).

Harappan weight units and their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Harappan length units and their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

Harappan volume units and their approximate equivalents in the modern metric system.

The Indus (Harappan) civilisation we exposed to our honorable reader above is only one of the socio-cultural phenomena established based on the region proto-cultures, and in this section we will introduce a number of them.

Location: Sindh, near the Indus River delta...

Location: Haryana–Rajasthan–Cholistan; along the now-dry Ghaggar–Hakra River...

Location: Khadir Bet island in the Rann of Kutch desert...

Location: Near modern Ahmedabad; Sabarmati River estuary...

Location: Between Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, along Indus...

Location: South Sindh, foothills between Indus plain and Baluchistan...

Location: Bolan Pass region, near Quetta...

Location: Northeastern Kutch region...

The authors allowed ourself compare the kingdoms with their main distinctions, appropriate at this stage of our cultural diving adventure...

A summarized overview of the archaeologically verified relations among the Indus kingdoms discussed in this chapter.

A comparison of length measurement approaches among the Indus kingdoms, showing the differences between systems and their approximate conversions to modern metrological units for each known unit.

A comparison of weight measurement approaches among the Indus kingdoms, showing the differences between systems and their approximate conversions to modern metrological units for each known unit.

A comparison of volume measurement approaches among the Indus kingdoms...

We recommend reading the listed literature for a deeper understanding of the topic. Here, we provide links to the primary sources and related materials.

In this section, we will attempt to merge all our tributaries into a single river of outcomes — from prehistoric cultures to organized kingdoms — and evaluate whether our predictions, based on incomplete and perhaps speculative analytical methods, have proven successful.

A list of cultures showing their latest stages — disappearance, transformation, or evolution — based on available archaeological data.

This section defines which cultures each of the nine Indus kingdoms was founded upon, or which tribes were later absorbed into them.

Archaeological evidence does not reveal a clear cultural signature for these groups; their presence cannot be confidently traced due to the absence or scarcity of identifiable artifacts.

These tribes are recorded in historical sources as having survived or transmitted their cultural influence. They are listed here in the accompanying table.

Here we present the table from our earlier scientific game (see above), comparing real data with our predictions. If the prediction score is lower than 3, the tribe is considered unlikely to have survived; otherwise, a green check mark indicates partial adaptability. Conversely, if a tribe vanished despite a high score, it is considered a misprediction.

This chapter guides the reader through the region now known as China. Our primary interest, of course, lies in exploring the measurement systems of this culture — but why miss the opportunity to discover a little more?

Table presenting transcriptions and pronunciation rules — a concise Pinyin reference.

⛩️ The Qin Empire (Qin Dynasty, 221–206 BCE) and ⛩️ The Han Empire (Western Han, 206 BCE–9 CE; Eastern Han, 25–220 CE): a brief introduction.

The Zhou dynasty — remarkable for uniting numerous territories into one organized state and laying the groundwork for imperial China.

The Qin period was marked by strong centralization of administration, taxation, and the standardization of measurement systems — a key step in shaping unified governance.

Table presenting Qin dynasty length units with their approximate equivalents in the modern metrological system.

Table presenting Qin dynasty weight units with their approximate equivalents in the modern metrological system.

Table presenting Qin dynasty volume units with their approximate equivalents in the modern metrological system.

A comparative table showing internal correlations within the Qin metrological system — a useful basis for understanding its structural logic.

A concise presentation of the archaeological artefacts and source data from which the Qin metrological parameters have been derived.

In this section, we present to our honorable readers the background of the Shang Dynasty — its state organization, metrological practices of the period, and several additional fascinating aspects of this early Chinese civilization.

Historical Context and Governance Foundations...

For generalisation purposes (as we love), let's assemble the set of fields that will serve us as the basis for the state-managing tools concentrated within the ruler, and necessary for the successful governance of the state.

A table illustrating the state hierarchy during the Shang Dynasty period, outlining the feudal structure and the ranks of regional lords.

The Shang dynasty stands at the threshold between ritual metrology and administrative metrology. Measurements existed primarily as ritual and practical instruments...

The Shang system established the continuity of unit names (chi, dou, jin, liang) that endured for 2,000 years. See table...

Weight and capacity units used during the Shang period, presented with their comparative equivalents in the modern metrological system.

Let's trace the measurement evolution path within ancient China across the periods we have already examined.

Let's compare the feudal structure of the Shang Dynasty epoch with the medieval feudalistic state architecture of Europe.

A comparative table examining how the Shang feudal system differed from that of medieval Europe.